Audio teaser: Orbital mechanics and the plural sunrise

The Lord of Every Sunrise and Sunset: An Interdisciplinary Analysis of Qur’an 70:36–44

Abstract

Every sunrise and sunset is at once familiar and unrepeatable. While the same Sun rises daily, it never does so from the exact same spatial coordinate throughout the year, constantly illuminating changing landscapes, passing through dynamic atmospheres, and manifesting across distinct, observer-dependent horizons. Qur’an 70:40 captures this continuous spatial and temporal multiplicity through the use of the Arabic plurals al-mashāriq wa’l-maghārib—the many points, times, and regions of rising and setting. Rather than acting as a simple aesthetic description, this verse serves a profound eschatological function. By swearing by Himself as the Lord of all risings and settings, the Creator establishes a direct link between the observable, law-governed regularities of the physical cosmos and the certainty of human resurrection, judgment, and transformation. This report investigates this passage through a multi-dimensional framework: analyzing the historical and literary setting of the Meccan mockers; exploring the scientific mechanics of axial tilt, orbital geometry, and atmospheric refraction; evaluating the philosophical systems of occasionalism and perspective contingency; and defining the theological epistemology that transitions the human mind from physical observation to absolute spiritual certainty.   

Historical and Literary Context of Sūrat al-Maʿārij

The historical setting of Qur’an 70:36–44 is characterized by intense rhetorical and physical tension in Mecca. The Prophet Muhammad is depicted proclaiming the core tenets of the revelation—resurrection, moral accountability, divine judgment, and the realities of Paradise and Hell. In response, Meccan opponents gather in fragmented, hurried clusters to ridicule the message.   

The classical lexicon and exegesis offer precise definitions for the physical postures of these mockers. The term muhṭiʿīn portrays a state of craning one’s neck forward, running or rushing toward the speaker with intense outward focus but a completely closed intellect. While Al-Hasan Al-Basri explained muhṭiʿīn as “departing” or fleeing in aversion, Ibn ʿAbbās reported that it denotes looking directly in the Prophet’s direction with a posture of mockery rather than receptive listening.   

The term ʿizīn (the plural of ʿizah, meaning separating) describes how they split into separate, distinct groups and cliques, surrounding the Prophet from the right and the left to whisper and mock. This fragmented social behavior is illustrated in a Hadith narrated by Jābir bin Samurah, in which the Messenger of Allah came out to the companions sitting in scattered circles and asked why he saw them ʿizīn—meaning divided into separate groups. Their physical proximity to the recitation of the divine word did not signify spiritual openness; rather, they used their proximity to gather material for intellectual caricature.   

The core of their cognitive dissonance is addressed in verse 38, which asks whether each of these individuals expects to be admitted into a Garden of Bliss. The Meccan aristocracy maintained a highly materialist, tribal worldview, assuming that their worldly prestige, wealth, and lineage would naturally translate into favored status in the afterlife, should one exist. The Qur’an systematically dismantles this socio-cultural elitism. Moral standing before the Creator cannot be inherited, bought, or claimed through tribal self-congratulation.   

To shatter this hubris, the text introduces a stark reminder of physical origin: “No indeed! We created them from what they know”. This refers to the humble biological beginning of the human organism from an insignificant, gushing reproductive fluid. The analytical path here follows a “greater to lesser” argument. If the Divine Volition can initiate the highly complex, coordinated, and information-rich process of embryonic development—transforming a simple fluid into a conscious, complex human being—then the secondary process of physical re-creation and resurrection is logically simpler and entirely within the scope of the same omnipotent power.   

Rhetorical Structure of Divine Oaths

In classical Arabic oratory, the oath (qasam) is an established emphatic device used to capture attention, frame the gravity of a claim, and elevate the discourse from casual speech to a serious truth-claim. When utilized in the Qur’an, these oaths are never ornamental or arbitrary. As emphasized by classical scholars such as Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī, the muqsam bihi (the object or reality sworn by) is mathematically and philosophically selected to directly inform and validate the muqsam ʿalayhi (the claim or answer to the oath). The natural phenomena invoked in the oaths serve as physical, universally observable exhibits in a divine court, validating the spiritual and metaphysical assertions that follow.   

The structure of the oath in Qur’an 70:40 consists of three distinct components:   

• The Jurative Formula: The expression fa-lā uqsimu (translated as “No indeed! I swear…” or “So, I do swear…”) begins with a particle of emphatic negation. This negation serves to pre-emptively reject the false assertions and doubts of the deniers before launching into the solemn oath itself.   
• The Object Invoked: The Creator swears by Himself as the Lord of the risings and settings (Rabbi’l-mashāriqi wa’l-maghārib). Crucially, the oath does not venerate the physical celestial bodies themselves, which were often objects of worship in ancient pagan cultures. By swearing by the Rabb (the Lord, Sustainer, and Governor) of these phenomena, the text directs human attention past the creation to the supreme authority of the Creator.   
• The Response (Jawāb al-Qasam): The structural answer to the oath is “We are surely able to replace them with others better than they, and We cannot be outrun”. The absolute, continuous governance required to manage every celestial horizon is presented as the direct logical proof of God’s capacity to bring about the Day of Judgment, transform human bodies, and replace a rebellious nation. While Ibn Jarīr al-Ṭabarī suggested that “replacing them” could refer to substituting them with a nation that obeys rather than disobeys, Ibn Kathīr notes that the primary and more obvious meaning refers to resurrecting them on the Day of Judgment in superior, transformed physical bodies.   

The Qur’an employs different spatial and directional formulations of “east” and “west” depending on the specific analytical perspective of the passage. These differences are categorized in the table below:   

Linguistic Form	Arabic Construction	Cosmological Perspective	Phenomenological and Astrophysical Meaning
Singular	al-mashriq wa’l-maghrib[cite: 1]	Broad directional polarity.	Denotes the two general cardinal directions of the compass, symbolizing the entirety of the inhabited Earth and the universal domain of divine sovereignty.
Dual	al-mashriqayn wa’l-maghribayn[cite: 1]	Hemispheric and seasonal extremes.	Refers to the physical extremes of the solar path (the summer and winter solstices) or the reciprocal relationship between the Eastern and Western hemispheres.
Plural	al-mashāriq wa’l-maghārib[cite: 1]	Shifting local coordinates and celestial paths.	Captures the continuously shifting solar azimuths throughout the year, the highly localized horizons of multiple observers on a spherical planet, and the paths of planets, stars, and moons.

Classical commentators analyzed the plural terms through diverse celestial, seasonal, and geometric lenses. Tafsir al-Jalalayn explains that the plurals refer to the multiple points of rising and setting for the sun, the moon, and all stars. The Almuntakhab commentary highlights these points as the eastern and western cardinal zones corresponding to the sun’s apparent passage through the signs of the Zodiac.   

Ibn Kathīr links the plurals to the subjection of stars, which continuously appear in the eastern skies and vanish in the western skies. Maududi notes that the sun rises and sets at a different angle every day throughout the year, creating successive intervals of day and night around the globe.   

This seasonal progression is quantified in the commentary of Ibn ʿAbbās, which outlines 177 distinct phases of rising and setting for the winter cycle and another 177 phases for the summer cycle. Within this annual movement, the sun rises and sets for two consecutive days in the same phase, totaling 354 days of the lunar year. Muhammad Taqiud-Din al-Hilali further glosses the plurals as representing the 360 distinct points of sunrise and sunset across the eastern and western horizons.   

Astrophysics, Axial Tilt, and Planetary Dynamics

While the Qur’an is not a technical manual of astronomy, its descriptive language is highly compatible with the physical mechanics of a spherical, rotating Earth orbiting a star. The plural formulation al-mashāriq wa’l-maghārib transitions from a simple poetic description to a precise physical reality when analyzed through modern orbital geometry and atmospheric physics.   

Orbital Mechanics and Axial Tilt

The existence of multiple, shifting points of sunrise and sunset is a direct consequence of the Earth’s spherical geometry and its axial tilt. The Earth rotates on an axis that is tilted at an angle of ϵ≈23.44∘ relative to the plane of its orbit around the Sun. As the planet completes its annual revolution, this tilt causes the solar declination angle δ to vary continuously throughout the year. The solar declination—representing the latitude at which the Sun’s rays strike the Earth vertically at solar noon—can be modeled mathematically as:   

δ=ϵsin(365360∘​(N−80))

where N is the day of the year (starting with N=1 on January 1st) and the offset of 80 days aligns the sine wave with the vernal equinox around March 20th.   

As δ oscillates between +23.44∘ at the summer solstice and −23.44∘ at the winter solstice, the azimuth angle of sunrise and sunset shifts daily along the horizon for any observer outside the equator. In the Northern Hemisphere, the Sun rises north of east and sets north of west during the summer solstice, while during the winter solstice, it rises south of east and sets south of west. Thus, there is not a single point of sunrise or sunset, but a continuous spectrum of distinct physical coordinates of rising and setting throughout the calendar year.   

Spherical Earth and Continuous Horizons

On a flat Earth, the Sun’s path would produce a uniform horizon for all observers simultaneously. However, on a rotating spherical Earth, sunrise and sunset are not singular events in global time; they are continuous phenomena. Because the Earth rotates at a constant angular velocity of:   

ω=24 hours360∘​=15∘/hour

the line of solar illumination (the terminator) sweeps continuously across the planet’s surface. At any given millisecond of the day, there is an infinite sequence of points along the globe where the Sun is currently crossing the local horizon. Therefore, the phrase “Lord of the risings and settings” describes a continuous, real-time physical process where the Sun is perpetually rising and setting somewhere on the spherical Earth.   

Furthermore, the Moon stabilizes the Earth’s axial tilt through its gravitational pull. Without the Moon’s stabilization, the Earth’s tilt would undergo chaotic oscillations of up to 85∘, causing catastrophic climate shifts and erratic solar paths. This highlights the high degree of physical calibration required to maintain the stable, life-supporting cycles of night and day.   

The Solar Engine and Atmospheric Optics

Modern astrophysics enriches the contemplation of these daily cycles by revealing the physical nature of the Sun as a G2V yellow dwarf star. Operating as a nuclear furnace governed by hydrostatic equilibrium, the Sun maintains a delicate balance between outward radiative pressure and inward gravitational pull. This steady energy output, combined with the Earth’s position in the circumstellar habitable zone, allows life to persist. The Qur’anic description of the Sun as a “blazing lamp” (sirāj wahhāj) aligns with this massive energy output, transforming physical light into an instrument of biological and spiritual utility.   

During twilight—explicitly referenced in passages such as Qur’an 84:16—the atmosphere scatters sunlight even when the Sun is below the horizon. This spectral transformation is governed by Rayleigh scattering, where the intensity of scattered light I is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength λ:   

I∝λ−4

Because shorter wavelengths (blue and violet) are scattered out of the direct line of sight over the long atmospheric path, only the longer wavelengths (red, orange, and gold) reach the observer, creating a unique color gradient for every horizon. Atmospheric refraction further alters this perception, bending light rays downward as they pass through the atmospheric density gradient, allowing observers to see the Sun before it physically crosses the geometric horizon. Twilight represents a highly ordered transition phase where daylight slowly yields to darkness, acting as a physical metaphor for the orderly transition stages of human existence.   

The Four Books Paradigm and Occasionalist Philosophy

To synthesize the scientific and theological aspects of these natural phenomena, the analysis can be framed through the “Four Books Paradigm” proposed by Dr. Zia H. Shah. This epistemological model posits that truth is unitary and that the Word of God and the Work of God cannot contradict one another. It identifies four distinct domains of divine expression:   

• The Book of Nature: The observable, law-governed physical universe, representing the physical laws of orbital mechanics, axial tilt, and atmospheric refraction.   
• The Book of Revelation: The revealed scripture of the Qur’an, which provides the moral and spiritual framework to interpret the natural signs.   
• The Book of Deeds: The computational record of human moral choices, which establishes the absolute boundary of moral accountability.   
• The Book of Destiny or Decree: The overarching divine plan that governs the trajectory of cosmic and human history.   

Under this paradigm, the physical order of the universe is not an independent, self-existent mechanism. This perspective is grounded in the occasionalist philosophy of Al-Ghazali, which posits that what humans call “natural laws” are not inherent, primary causes within matter. Instead, they are the stable, highly regularized habits of divine action—sunnat Allāh.   

Every single sunrise is an active, continuous event of creation sustained by the ongoing volition of the Creator at every moment. The daily reliability of solar orbits is a manifestation of divine consistency and mercy, allowing conscious beings to navigate, calculate time, and maintain stable lives. The “anesthesia of familiarity” often blinds humanity to the miraculous nature of these daily cycles, but the divine oath serves to disrupt this intellectual complacency, forcing the mind to recognize the profound intelligence behind these constant physical renewals.   

This occasionalist framework connects directly to the concept of “Analogical Eschatology” found in Qur’an 84:16–19, which states that humanity will experience “stage after stage” (tabaqan ʿan tabaq). Just as the physical cosmos undergoes highly ordered, governed phases—from twilight to night, and from night to the full moon—the human journey must also unfold through appointed physical and spiritual stages toward resurrection and judgment.   

Classical and Linguistic Insights into Solar Symbols

The Quranic vocabulary used to describe daylight and lunar phases contains precise astronomical and metaphorical significance. A key term is ḍuḥā, which refers specifically to the mid-morning light shortly after sunrise. Unlike the harsh, overwhelming heat of midday, ḍuḥā represents a gentle, warming light associated with vitality, clarity, and hope. Classical commentators viewed this morning sunshine as a daily symbol of emerging light after darkness, representing spiritual guidance chasing away the night of ignorance.   

Another critical term is talāhā (occurring in Qur’an 91:2: “By the moon as it follows it”). Derived from the root talā (meaning to follow), classical exegetes like Qatādah and Mujāhid noted that this describes the literal astronomical sequence in which the crescent moon becomes visible immediately after sunset.   

This observation reflects a precise understanding of the lunar cycle: the moon reflects the sun’s light and appears in its wake, acting as a gentler guide during the night. Just as the moon reflects the physical light of the sun, prophetic guidance and wisdom reflect divine truth to illuminate the darkness of human moral confusion.   

Epistemological Levels of Certainty and Eschatology

The ultimate purpose of Qur’anic oaths involving natural phenomena is to guide the human intellect from empirical observation to absolute spiritual and eschatological conviction. This cognitive journey can be mapped across three distinct levels of certainty recognized in classical Islamic epistemology:   

• ʿIlm al-Yaqīn (Certainty through Rational Deduction): This level of certainty is reached through sound logical argumentation. By observing the mathematical precision, fine-tuning, and systematic order of celestial paths, the intellect logically deduces the existence of a singular, wise Creator.   
• ʿAyn al-Yaqīn (Certainty through Empirical Observation): This is the certainty that arises from direct sensory perception. Observing the daily sunrise, the shifting solstices, and the atmospheric transition of twilight provides physical, real-world evidence of the cosmic order.   
• Ḥaqq al-Yaqīn (Absolute, Fully Realized Truth): This represents the highest level of epistemic certainty, where the reality corresponding to what was known and observed is fully realized and experienced. In the context of Sūrat al-Maʿārij, this refers to the ultimate experience of resurrection, judgment, and the entry into the spiritual realities of the afterlife.   

The relationships between these epistemic levels, physical observation, and theological outcomes are summarized in the table below:

Epistemic Level	Source of Input	Cosmological Application	Theological Outcome
ʿIlm al-Yaqīn[cite: 5]	Rational reflection and deductive logic.	Analyzing the fine-tuning of orbital physics and the planetary dynamics that make life possible.	Intellectual conviction in Tawḥīd and the logical necessity of a Creator.
ʿAyn al-Yaqīn[cite: 5]	Direct empirical and sensory observation.	Witnessing the physical transition of twilight, daily sunrises, and the seasonal path of the Sun.	Verification of the consistency and reliability of natural laws.
Ḥaqq al-Yaqīn[cite: 5]	Ultimate metaphysical fulfillment and experience.	Witnessing the unfolding of the cosmic order during the final eschatological transformation.	Full submission, realization of moral accountability, and glorification of the Creator.

By swearing by the “Lord of all risings and settings,” the Qur’an bridges the gap between ʿayn al-yaqīn (the empirical observation of daily renewal in nature) and ḥaqq al-yaqīn (the absolute certainty of the promised Resurrection). The underlying theological argument is analogical: just as the physical world undergoes a continuous process of death and rebirth through the setting and rising of light, the human soul will undergo a final, majestic awakening. The same supreme power that continuously governs every coordinate of the celestial horizon is fully capable of bringing forth humanity from its graves.   

This transition culminate in the eschatological reality of the Day of Judgment described in Qur’an 70:43–44. The text depicts humanity emerging rapidly from their graves, described as “quickly as racing to a Nusub or Nasb“. Classical scholars highlight a significant linguistic and theological debate surrounding these recitations:   

• The Reading of Nasb (Nun-Fathah, Sad-Sukun): Favored by Ibn ʿAbbās, Mujāhid, and Ad-Daḥḥāk, this verbal noun means “something that is erected”. Under this reading, the resurrected humans are described as rushing swiftly toward a prominent flag, standard, or goal, illustrating the absolute, organized pull of the divine summons.   
• The Reading of Nusub (Nun-Dammah, Sad-Dammah): Promoted by Al-Hasan Al-Basri and supported by Qatādah and Ad-Daḥḥāk, this plural term means “idols”. Under this reading, their rapid gathering on the Day of Resurrection is compared to how they hurriedly rushed to touch and worship their stone idols in worldly life. This comparison serves as a sharp rhetorical irony, showing that the swiftness they once wasted on false deities will be forced upon them in terror as they are driven toward their true Creator with downcast eyes, covered in ignominy.   

The Limits of Scientific and Metaphysical Categorization

In performing an interdisciplinary analysis of Quranic texts, it is critical to maintain a disciplined division between empirical science, philosophical reasoning, and scriptural revelation to avoid category mistakes.   

• The Empirical Domain (Science): Science is restricted to the study of physical, observable mechanisms—such as the laws of thermodynamic fusion inside the Sun, the Earth’s axial tilt, or the cellular pathways of embryonic development. Science can describe the physical mechanics of a sunset, but it cannot prove or disprove the metaphysical purpose behind it.   
• The Deductive Domain (Philosophy): Philosophy operates on logical inferences. It takes empirical observations—such as the extreme fine-tuning of the planetary system—and reasons that a highly complex, coordinated, and law-governed universe point to a conscious Designer. It also establishes that if a process can be initiated once (the first creation), its repetition (recreation) is logically plausible.   
• The Absolute Domain (Revelation): Revelation provides information that lies entirely beyond the reach of empirical testing or philosophical deduction. Science and philosophy can suggest the possibility of re-creation, but only revelation can promise the actual historical occurrence of resurrection, the retention of personal moral identity, the disclosure of deeds, and the realities of Paradise and Hell.   

Confusing these categories either overstates what science can experimentally prove, leading to a superficial “scientific miracle” hermeneutic, or understates the spiritual necessity of divine revelation as an independent source of absolute certainty.   

Thematic Epilogue: Every Horizon is His

Human beings possess an intuitive, universal attraction to the horizons of sunrise and sunset. Across cultures, eras, and geographic boundaries, people gather on coastlines, mountain peaks, and open plains to contemplate these brief moments of transition. This aesthetic pull is not merely a biological reaction to changing light levels or a simple appreciation of atmospheric physics. It represents an intuitive, spiritual movement of the human soul toward the transcendent.   

The horizon is a dynamic boundary—it is always visible yet never reachable; it shifts as the observer moves, representing both a physical limit and an invitation to look beyond. In the Qur’an’s worldview, this boundary serves as a constant signpost pointing to the Creator. The infinite variation of the horizons across the globe ensures that every single dawn is a unique, unrepeatable masterpiece of divine volition.   

The physical book of nature thus converges with the book of revelation. The One who guides the stars along their pathways, stabilizes the Earth’s axis, and illuminates every corner of the planet with a continuous sequence of dawns, has promised that human existence is not a meaningless cycle of dust. Every setting is but a prelude to a rising, and every physical horizon is a standing witness to the ultimate morning of the Soul.