Presented by Zia H Shah MD

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Abstract

This research report presents a comprehensive, expert-level comparative analysis of the most widely venerated Sutras in the Buddhist tradition and their thematic corollaries within the Glorious Quran and Islamic tradition. In an era marked by the urgent necessity for interreligious literacy, this study transcends superficial doctrinal binaries to excavate the deep structural resonances in how these two global faiths conceptualize Ultimate Reality, ethical cultivation, and the nature of human existence. The report identifies the specific Buddhist texts that constitute the “living canon” of the faithful—namely the Dhammapada, the Karaniya Metta Sutta, the Sigalovada Sutta, the Heart Sutra, and the Lotus Sutra—and subjects them to a rigorous hermeneutic dialogue with Islamic scripture.

Utilizing a methodology rooted in comparative theology and philology, the analysis reveals that while the ontological foundations appear divergent (non-theistic Dharma versus monotheistic Tawhid), the phenomenological and ethical expressions of these traditions exhibit profound convergence. Key findings include the structural identity between the Buddhist concept of Anicca (impermanence) and the Quranic assertion of the perishability of all things save the Face of God (Wajh Allah); the precise metaphorical alignment of Metta (loving-kindness) and Rahma (Divine Mercy) through the archetype of maternal love; the pedagogical mirroring of Upaya (skillful means) and the Prophetic methodology of Hikmah (wisdom); and the shared soteriological goal of detaching from the illusion of the worldly life (Samsara/Hayat al-Dunya) to attain the Real (Nirvana/Al-Haqq). By synthesizing insights from classical exegesis, modern comparative scholarship, and historical interaction, this report establishes a robust framework for Muslim-Buddhist engagement, demonstrating that the “Common Ground” envisioned by contemporary scholars extends into the very heart of their liturgical and meditative practices.

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1. Introduction: The Imperative of Theological Bridge-Building

The historical and theological encounter between Buddhism and Islam is often characterized by a narrative of silence or misunderstanding, driven by the apparent irreconcilability of their foundational creeds. Islam is rigorously monotheistic, centered on Tawhid (the Absolute Oneness of the Creator), while Buddhism is non-theistic, centered on Anatta (No-Self) and Shunyata (Emptiness). However, a purely doctrinal analysis often obscures the profound experiential and ethical congruences that exist at the level of lived spirituality. As scholars like Dr. Alexander Berzin and Dr. Reza Shah-Kazemi have argued, when one moves “beyond the letter to the spirit,” a vast territory of shared wisdom emerges.¹

This report seeks to map this territory by focusing on the “popular” Sutras of Buddhism—those texts that are not merely stored in the dusty archives of the Tripitaka but are chanted, memorized, and lived by millions of practitioners daily. By juxtaposing these texts with the Glorious Quran, we aim to uncover a “Common Ground of Sanctity.” This is not an attempt to syncretize the two faiths or deny their differences, but to recognize what Shah-Kazemi describes as “transcendental wisdom and merciful compassion” that permeates both traditions.³

The investigation is structured to first identify and explicate the popular Buddhist Sutras, categorizing them by their function in the Theravada and Mahayana traditions. Subsequently, the report transitions into deep thematic bridges, where these texts are placed in conversation with Quranic verses and Prophetic Hadith. Through this dialectic, we uncover how the Dhammapada’s psychology mirrors Islamic Tazkiyah (purification), how the Lotus Sutra’s parables reflect Quranic pedagogy, and how the Heart Sutra’s metaphysics of emptiness finds a startling partner in the Sufi doctrine of Fana (annihilation).

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2. The Living Canon: Identification and Exegesis of Popular Buddhist Sutras

To understand the bridge, one must first understand the pillars on the Buddhist side. The Buddhist canon is vast, yet a select few Sutras have achieved a status of universal ubiquity, serving as the primary source of guidance for laypeople and monastics alike. These texts are chosen for their accessibility, their encapsulation of the Dhamma, and their liturgical importance.

2.1 The Theravada Tradition: The Ethics of the Elders

The Theravada tradition, dominant in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, and Cambodia, relies heavily on the Pali Canon. Within this massive collection, three texts stand out as the veritable “Bibles” of the tradition: the Dhammapada, the Karaniya Metta Sutta, and the Sigalovada Sutta.

2.1.1 The Dhammapada: The Anthology of Mental Discipline

The Dhammapada (Path of Truth) is arguably the most widely read Buddhist text in the world.⁴ It is a collection of 423 verses arranged by theme, serving as a handbook for mental training. Its popularity stems from its directness; it avoids complex metaphysical speculation in favor of immediate psychological cause-and-effect.

The Cognitive Foundation of Reality

The text opens with the famous “Twin Verses,” which establish the mind as the forerunner of all experience:

“Mind precedes all mental states. Mind is their chief; they are all mind-wrought. If with an impure mind a person speaks or acts suffering follows him like the wheel that follows the foot of the ox.” 5

“Mind precedes all mental states. Mind is their chief; they are all mind-wrought. If with a pure mind a person speaks or acts happiness follows him like his never-departing shadow.” 5

This establishes the law of Kamma not as a system of divine retribution, but as a natural law of moral causality. The text serves as a mirror for the practitioner, forcing them to take radical responsibility for their internal state. It teaches that “The wise are controlled in bodily action, controlled in speech and controlled in thought” ⁷, emphasizing a holistic restraint that leads to the “Deathless State” (Amata).

The Psychology of Conflict

The Dhammapada also provides the quintessential Buddhist formula for conflict resolution. Verses 3-5 analyze the psychology of resentment:

“‘He abused me, he beat me, he defeated me, he robbed me’—in those who harbor such thoughts hatred will never cease.” 5

“Hatred is never appeased by hatred in this world; by non-hatred alone is hatred appeased. This is a law eternal.” 7

Here, the text diagnoses the mechanism of suffering: it is the harboring of the narrative of victimhood that perpetuates pain. The solution is Avera (non-hatred), an active dissolution of hostility.

2.1.2 The Karaniya Metta Sutta: The Liturgy of Universal Love

If the Dhammapada is the text of the intellect, the Karaniya Metta Sutta (The Discourse on Loving-Kindness) is the text of the heart. Recited daily by millions, often as a protective chant (Paritta), it outlines the practice of Metta Bhavana (Cultivation of Loving-Kindness).⁹

The Structure of Boundless Benevolence

The Sutta begins by describing the moral character required for the practice: one must be capable, upright, gentle, humble, and contented. It then moves to the central injunction:

“Just as a mother would protect her only child with her own life, even so, let him cultivate a boundless heart towards all beings.” ¹⁰

This maternal metaphor is the emotional core of the text. It demands a radical expansion of the sphere of concern, breaking down the barriers between “self” and “other,” “friend” and “enemy.” The text commands that this love be radiated “above, below, and all around, unobstructed, free from hatred and enmity”.¹¹ It concludes by equating this state of mind with the “Sublime Abiding” (Brahma-vihara), suggesting that the practitioner who dwells in love dwells in the divine state.

2.1.3 The Sigalovada Sutta: The Social Contract

While Western perception of Buddhism often focuses on monastic withdrawal, the Sigalovada Sutta (DN 31) acts as the “Vinaya of the Householder”.¹² It is the primary text regarding social ethics and domestic responsibility.

The Sanctification of Relationships

The Sutta frames social duties as a form of “worship.” The Buddha encounters a young man named Sigala worshipping the six cardinal directions. The Buddha reinterprets this ritual, assigning a social relationship to each direction:

1. East (Parents): To be supported and honored.
2. South (Teachers): To be respected and obeyed.
3. West (Spouse/Family): To be cherished and faithful to.
4. North (Friends): To be generous and loyal to.
5. Nadir (Servants/Employees): To be treated with dignity and fairness.
6. Zenith (Ascetics/Brahmins): To be supported with alms.¹³

The text details reciprocal duties. For example, an employer is explicitly commanded to assign work according to ability, provide food and wages, tend to the sick, and grant leave.¹⁵ This text proves that popular Buddhism is deeply invested in the maintenance of a just and harmonious society.

2.2 The Mahayana Tradition: The Great Vehicle of Compassion

In East Asia (China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam) and the Himalayas, the Mahayana Sutras take precedence. These texts are often viewed as the “higher teachings” revealed for those with the capacity for the Bodhisattva path, emphasizing the emptiness of phenomena and the universality of salvation.

2.2.1 The Heart Sutra: The Condensed Essence of Wisdom

The Prajnaparamita Hridaya Sutra (Heart Sutra) is arguably the most famous text in the Mahayana world. Despite its extreme brevity (262 Chinese characters), it is recited daily in Zen, Chan, and Tibetan monasteries.¹⁶

The Paradox of Form and Emptiness

The Sutra recounts the insight of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva, who sees that “the five aggregates are all empty.” The central dictum is a cognitive shock:

“Form is emptiness, emptiness is form. Form is not different from emptiness, emptiness is not different from form.” ¹⁷

This teaching of Shunyata (Emptiness) is not nihilism; it is the realization that phenomena lack intrinsic, independent existence (Svabhava). Because they are empty of a fixed self, they are fluid and interconnected. This realization cuts through attachment, fear, and suffering. The Sutra concludes with the mantra Gate gate pāragate pārasaṃgate bodhi svāhā (“Gone, gone, gone beyond, gone altogether beyond, O awakening, hail!”), signifying the transcendence of dualistic thinking.¹⁹

2.2.2 The Lotus Sutra: The King of Sutras

The Saddharma Pundarika Sutra (Lotus Sutra) is revered as the final and most complete teaching of the Buddha in schools like Tiantai and Nichiren.²⁰ Its popularity lies in its inclusive message of Ekayana (One Vehicle)—the promise that all beings, without exception, will become Buddhas.

The Doctrine of Skillful Means (Upaya)

The Sutra is famous for its parables, particularly the “Parable of the Burning House.” In this story, a wealthy father sees his children trapped in a burning house, distracted by their games. To lure them out, he promises them three types of carts (goat, deer, and ox carts). When they run out to safety, he gives them all a magnificent jeweled carriage instead.21

• The Fire: Represents Samsara (the world of suffering/decay).
• The Toys: Represent the provisional teachings (Theravada/Hinayana goals).
• The Jeweled Carriage: Represents the Great Vehicle (Mahayana/Buddhahood).

This parable enshrines the concept of Upaya—that the truth must be tailored to the capacity of the listener to save them. It validates the diversity of religious approaches as necessary pedagogical expedients.

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3. Thematic Bridge I: The Metaphysics of the Ultimate

Having established the textual landscape, we now turn to the Glorious Quran to find resonances. The most formidable barrier to Buddhist-Muslim dialogue is the theological definition of the Ultimate: Theism vs. Non-Theism. However, when we analyze the Quranic description of Reality (Al-Haqq) versus the Illusory World (Al-Dunya), and compare it with the Buddhist description of Nirvana versus Samsara, a profound structural homology appears.

3.1 Anicca and the Face of God

The central insight of the Heart Sutra and Dhammapada is Anicca (Impermanence). All compounded things are transient; clinging to them causes suffering. The Quran offers a rigorous confirmation of this ontological truth in Surah Al-Qasas and Surah Ar-Rahman.

The Perishability of the Contingent

The Quran states in verse 28:88:

“Kullu shay’in halikun illa Wajhahu”

“Everything is bound to perish except His Face. His is the judgment, and to Him you will be returned.” 23

And in Surah Ar-Rahman (55:26-27):

“Everyone upon the earth will perish, And there will remain the Face of your Lord, Owner of Majesty and Honor.” ²⁵

This Arabic phrasing Kullu shay’in halikun (Everything is perishing/destroying itself) is the theological equivalent of the Buddhist Sabbe sankhara anicca (All conditioned things are impermanent). Both traditions assert that the world of form, time, and space lacks inherent stability.

• Buddhist View: Because the world is impermanent, one must seek the Unconditioned (Nirvana).
• Islamic View: Because the world is perishing, one must attach only to the Eternal (Al-Baqi), which is the Face of God (Wajh Allah).

As Dr. Reza Shah-Kazemi argues, the “Face of God” functions in Islamic metaphysics exactly as the “Unconditioned” functions in Buddhism: it is the sole Reality that does not die, offering a refuge from the flux of Samsara.¹

3.2 Shunyata and Fana: The Annihilation of the Self

The Heart Sutra’s negation of the self (“No eyes, no ears, no nose…”) is often seen as conflicting with the Abrahamic “Soul.” Yet, Sufism (Islamic Mysticism) bridges this with the doctrine of Fana (Annihilation).

The Extinction of the Ego

The Sufi goal is Fana fi Allah (Annihilation in God), where the mystic realizes that their individual ego (Nafs) is an illusion and that only God possesses true existence.27

• Ismaili Gnosis & Sufism: Scholars compare Nirvana to Fana. Just as the candle is blown out in Nirvana, the ego is extinguished in Fana.
• Hadith Qudsi: The Prophet reports God saying, “My servant continues to draw near to Me with supererogatory works so that I shall love him. When I love him I am his hearing with which he hears, his seeing with which he sees…”.²⁸

Here, the “Self” is emptied to make room for the Divine Presence. This phenomenological state—where the “I” is removed—is the experiential bridge between the Heart Sutra and Islamic Gnosis. The Buddhist empties the self to find Emptiness; the Muslim empties the self to find God. The process of ego-death is identical.

3.3 Fitra and Buddha Nature

The Lotus Sutra teaches that all beings possess Buddha Nature—the potential for enlightenment is innate, merely obscured by defilements.20

The Quranic parallel is Fitra (30:30), the primordial nature of humanity. The Prophet Muhammad said, “Every child is born on Fitra; it is his parents who make him a Jew, a Christian, or a Magian”.29

• Buddha Nature: The jewel hidden in the robe (a Lotus Sutra parable).
• Fitra: The innate knowledge of God buried under worldly conditioning.

Both traditions agree that the spiritual path is not about becoming something new, but uncovering what one already is: a being of light and truth.³⁰

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4. Thematic Bridge II: The Ethics of Compassion and Mercy

If metaphysics provides the map, ethics provides the vehicle. The popular Sutras and the Quran converge powerfully on the centrality of Compassion (Karuna/Rahma) and Generosity (Dana/Sadaqah).

4.1 The Womb of Mercy: Metta and Rahma

The linguistic connection between the Pali Metta and the Arabic Rahma is a cornerstone of this comparative analysis.

• Rahma: Derived from Rahim (Womb). God’s mercy is “womb-like”—unconditional, nourishing, and life-giving.³¹
• Metta: The Metta Sutta explicitly uses the womb/mother metaphor: “Just as a mother protects her only child…”.¹⁰

The Hadith of the Mother

The resonance is solidified by a Sahih Hadith. The Prophet Muhammad saw a woman clutching her child and asked:

“Do you think this woman would ever throw her child into the fire?”

They said, “No.”

He said, “Allah is more merciful to His servants than this woman is to her child.”.33

Both traditions use the exact same archetype—the mother’s love—to define the highest ethical and theological ideal. For the Buddhist, this is the standard of conduct toward all beings. For the Muslim, this is the nature of the God they worship and the quality they must emulate (Takhalluq bi Akhlaq Allah – Adorning oneself with the attributes of God).

4.2 The Economics of the Soul: Dana and Sadaqah

The Sigalovada Sutta advises the householder to use wealth for the benefit of others.15 The Dhammapada urges overcoming the miser with generosity.7

The Quran places Sadaqah (Charity) at the heart of piety. A striking parallel exists regarding the quality of giving:

• Quran 3:92: “You shall never attain righteousness (Birr) until you spend (in charity) from that which you love.”.³⁶
• Buddhist Dana: The merit of a gift is highest when one gives what is dear to them, thereby cutting the root of attachment (Upadana).

Both texts teach that wealth is a tool for spiritual liberation, not just social welfare. The act of giving liberates the giver from greed (Lobha/Shuhh) as much as it aids the receiver.

4.3 Social Harmony and Filial Piety

The Sigalovada Sutta’s elevation of parents to the status of the “East” (worthy of worshipful respect) finds its twin in the Quranic command of Birr al-Walidayn.

“Your Lord has commanded that you should worship none but Him, and that you be kind to your parents. If either or both of them reach old age with you, say no word that shows impatience with them (not even ‘Uff’)…” (Quran 17:23).³⁷

In both texts, the care of aging parents is not a social burden but a religious sacrament. The detailed reciprocity of the Sigalovada Sutta mirrors the Islamic system of Huquq al-Ibad (Rights of Servants), where spiritual standing is contingent upon the just treatment of family, neighbors, and employees.

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5. Thematic Bridge III: Prophetic Pedagogy and Skillful Means

The Mahayana concept of Upaya (Skillful Means) explains how the Ultimate Truth is mediated to relative intellects. This concept is vital for understanding the diversity of religious expression and finds strong support in Islamic tradition.

5.1 The Parable of the Burning House and Hikmah

The Lotus Sutra depicts the Buddha as a father using “toys” (provisional teachings) to save his children from a fire. He speaks to them in a language they understand to lead them to safety.21

This mirrors the Prophetic methodology of Hikmah (Wisdom).

• Hadith: Ali ibn Abi Talib said, “Speak to people only according to their level of knowledge. Would you like for Allah and His Messenger to be denied?”.³⁹
  • This implies that presenting “High Truth” to those unprepared for it can be harmful, exactly the logic of the Lotus Sutra.
• Ibrahim’s Debate: In Surah Al-An’am (6:76-79), Prophet Ibrahim engages his star-worshipping people by saying “This is my Lord” to the star, moon, and sun. Exegetes explain this was not a theological error but a Skillful Mean (rhetorical argument) to lead them gradually from the visible (celestial bodies) to the Invisible (the Creator).⁴¹ He met them in their worldview to guide them out of it.

5.2 The Diversity of Paths

The Lotus Sutra validates the existence of different vehicles (Yanas) as necessary accommodations for different human capacities.

The Quran similarly acknowledges the diversity of religious laws:

“To each of you We prescribed a law and a method. Had Allah willed, He would have made you one nation [united in religion], but [He intended] to test you in what He has given you; so race to [all that is] good.” (Quran 5:48).

This verse provides the theological mandate for the “Common Ground” project. Diversity is not an accident; it is a Divine design intended to foster a “race to goodness” (Fastabiqu al-Khayrat).

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6. Thematic Bridge IV: The Praxis of Mindfulness and Remembrance

Finally, the convergence is practical. The most popular Sutras are manuals for mental training. Here, we compare the Buddhist practice of Sati (Mindfulness) with the Islamic practice of Dhikr (Remembrance).

6.1 The Postures of Awareness

The Satipatthana Sutta (The Foundations of Mindfulness) commands continuous awareness: “When walking, he knows ‘I am walking’; when standing, ‘I am standing’…”.4

The Quran describes the “People of Understanding” (Ulul Albab) in Surah Al-Imran (3:191):

“Those who remember Allah standing, sitting, and lying on their sides, and reflect on the creation of the heavens and the earth…”.⁴³

The parallels are structural and physical:

1. The Three Postures: Both texts encompass the totality of human physical existence (Standing, Sitting, Lying).
2. The Dual Activity:
   • Buddhism: Sati (Mindfulness) + Vipassana (Reflection on impermanence).
   • Islam: Dhikr (Remembrance) + Tafakkur (Reflection on creation).

While the object of mindfulness differs (the Body/Breath vs. The Creator), the state of consciousness—a continuous, lucid presence that prevents heedlessness—is identical.

6.2 Taqwa as the Inner Guard

The Dhammapada teaches Appamada (Heedfulness) as the path to the deathless.45 The Islamic equivalent is Taqwa (God-Consciousness/Mindfulness).

Scholars note that Taqwa functions psychologically like an “inner policeman” or “observer.” It watches the arising of impulses and checks them against the moral law before they manifest as action.46

• Dhammapada: “Guard your thoughts, for thoughts become words.”
• Islam: Muhasaba (Self-Accounting) of intentions (Niyyah).

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7. Comparative Data Analysis

To visualize the structural homologies discussed, the following table synthesizes the key data points from the research material.

Theme	Buddhist Concept/Text	Islamic Concept/Text	Shared Insight
Ontology	Anicca (Impermanence) – Heart Sutra	Kullu shay’in halik (Everything perishes) – Quran 28:88	The world of form is fleeting; only the Ultimate remains.
Ultimate Reality	Nirvana / Unconditioned	Wajh Allah (Face of God) / Al-Haqq	The Refuge from Samsara/Dunya is the Eternal.
Compassion	Metta (Motherly Love) – Metta Sutta	Rahma (Womb/Mercy) – Hadith of Mother	The highest ethic is unconditional, maternal benevolence.
Pedagogy	Upaya (Skillful Means) – Lotus Sutra	Hikmah / Speaking to Intellects – Hadith of Ali	Truth must be tailored to the capacity of the listener.
Practice	Sati (Mindfulness) in all postures – Satipatthana	Dhikr (Remembrance) standing, sitting, lying – Quran 3:191	Continuous awareness is the key to spiritual awakening.
Selfhood	Anatta (No-Self) / Shunyata	Fana (Annihilation of Ego)	The “I” must be transcended to realize the Truth.
Social Ethics	Sigalovada Sutta (6 Directions)	Huquq al-Ibad (Rights of Servants) / Birr	Spirituality is validated by the just treatment of others.

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8. Epilogue: Thematic Synthesis and the Future of Dialogue

The exhaustive analysis of the Dhammapada, Metta Sutta, Lotus Sutra, Heart Sutra, and Sigalovada Sutta alongside the Glorious Quran reveals a spiritual architecture that transcends the rigid boundaries of dogmatic theology. We have traversed from the ethics of the householder to the metaphysics of the mystic, finding at every turn a “Common Ground of Sanctity.”

This report demonstrates that:

1. The Diagnosis is Shared: Both traditions identify the attachment to the transient world (Samsara/Hayat al-Dunya) as the root of human malaise.
2. The Cure is Shared: Both prescribe a path of cognitive discipline (Sati/Taqwa), ethical restraint (Sila/Birr), and the cultivation of boundless compassion (Metta/Rahma).
3. The Goal is Analogous: Whether framed as the blowing out of the fires of greed (Nirvana) or the annihilation of the self in the presence of the Divine (Fana), the trajectory is toward the Real (Al-Haqq) and away from the Illusory.

In the words of Shaykh Hamza Yusuf, “Buddhism teaches kindness, and Islam’s essence is mercy, which is another word for kindness. We often forget that kindness is engendered by a shared sense of ‘kind’—that we are of one human family”.⁴⁷

As the global community faces unprecedented challenges, the bridge between the Muslim and the Buddhist is not merely a theoretical luxury but a spiritual necessity. By recognizing that the “Face of God” remains when all else perishes, and that “Form is emptiness” strips away our attachments to worldly labels, the Muslim and the Buddhist can meet in the space of shared sanctity—a space defined not by the labels they wear, but by the compassion they practice and the Truth they seek.

The Lotus Sutra declares the Unity of the Vehicle; the Quran declares the Unity of the Source. Though the paths may wind through different valleys, the ascent leads to the same summit of Peace (Salam/Shanti) and Liberation.

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