Written and collected by Zia H Shah MD

Introduction

In a world dominated by nation-states, superpowers, and shifting alliances, understanding present-day political powers can be challenging. Secular analyses often attribute the world order to human ambitions, economic forces, or military might alone. However, Islamic occasionalism offers a radically different lens: it posits that all events – including the rise and fall of empires – unfold by the direct will of God, not by independent human agency. In tandem, the Qur’anic concept of Khalīfa (vicegerency) frames humans as divinely entrusted stewards of Earth. Taken together, these doctrines suggest that worldly power is neither absolute nor self-sustained; rather, it is a trust from God that operates within a moral order. This article explores the theological foundations of occasionalism in Islamic thought, examines how divine sovereignty shapes the ebb and flow of political power, and discusses the practical implications for political engagement by those who see themselves as God’s vicegerents on earth.

Occasionalism in Islamic Philosophy

Occasionalism in Islamic theology is the doctrine that God alone is the true cause behind all events, while what we call “natural causes” are merely occasions for God’s action thequran.love. This view was championed by the 11th-century scholar Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī within the Ash‘arite school. Al-Ghazālī argued that created things have no independent efficacy; every apparent cause-and-effect in nature is in reality a sequence ordained and continuously produced by God’s will thequran.love thequran.love. In his famous work Tahāfut al-Falāsifa (“Incoherence of the Philosophers”), al-Ghazālī refuted the Aristotelian idea of inherent causality. For example, when fire burns cotton, it is not due to any autonomous power in the fire or cotton – rather, God creates the burning at that moment. If God so willed, the cotton could fail to burn despite the flame, as demonstrated by the Qur’anic miracle of Abraham emerging unharmed from Nimrod’s fire thequran.love. What we call “laws of nature” are simply God’s customary patterns (sunnat Allāh), which He may suspend at any time. The Qur’an itself underscores this worldview of absolute divine agency: “You did not throw when you [O Muhammad] threw, but God threw” (Qur’an 8:17) – a striking affirmation that even ostensibly human actions are, in truth, effectuated by God thequran.love thequran.love. Likewise, “The outcome of every affair is with God” (Qur’an 31:22) denies any creature an independent outcome thequran.love. In short, the cosmos is not a machine running on its own; it is actively upheld by God at each instant. As a Muslim author explains, the Qur’an portrays Allah “not as a distant clockmaker but as the intimate, moment-to-moment sustainer of all reality”, holding up the heavens and earth lest they cease thequran.love.

Crucially, Islamic occasionalism maintains God’s omniscience and omnipotence: nothing occurs outside His decree thequran.love thequran.love. This philosophy was not mere abstract speculation; it was a theological response to ensure tawḥīd (Divine Unity) in causality, so that attributing power to “nature” or material causes does not detract from God’s sovereignty thequran.love thequran.love. By eliminating secondary causes, all glory is ascribed to God as the immediate doer of every event thequran.love. As one writer puts it, “The world is like a grand theater where God is the only actor, and what we call ‘characters’ (creatures) are merely costumes or instruments through which the sole Actor works.” thequran.love.

It is important to note that occasionalism does not render human actions meaningless or deny our experience of choice. Classical Sunni theologians developed the doctrine of kasb (“acquisition”) to reconcile God’s total causal control with human moral responsibility thequran.love. According to this view, every human act is indeed created by God, but humans “acquire” the act through their intention and will, which is what makes them accountable thequran.love. The Qur’an hints at this dual attribution: “It was not you who threw when you threw, but God threw” (8:17) – the physical motion was from the Prophet, but the effective result was from God thequran.love. Thus an action can be ascribed to the human at the level of intention/acquisition and to God at the level of creation simultaneously thequran.love. This nuanced teaching means that, while God is the ultimate cause of all outcomes, humans are still responsible for their choices (they earn either reward or blame). In practice, it encourages believers to act righteously and put forth their best efforts, yet remain deeply cognizant that success or failure is solely by Allah’s will. As the Qur’an says, “Victory comes only from God, the Mighty, the Wise” (3:126), even though believers must strive and take action. In short, occasionalism imbues the Muslim understanding of causality with humility – every achievement is by God’s grace – and with faith that no obstacle is insurmountable if God wills otherwise.

Divine Sovereignty in History and World Order

If God’s will is the true engine behind all events, how does this shape an Islamic understanding of political power and world order? Islamic scripture and history present a clear message: worldly dominion is transient and subordinate to divine purpose. The Qur’an frequently invites us to reflect on past civilizations: “Travel through the land and see the end of those before you” (30:9), emphasizing how great powers of old were destroyed due to their injustices or disbelief. History is thus viewed as a manifestation of divine will and justice on the world stage thequran.love thequran.love. Empires rise and fall not merely by human fortune or folly, but as part of a moral order overseen by God’s wisdom (ḥikma). The rise, fall, and resurgence of empires are woven into the tapestry of God’s purpose, often to serve as lessons or to advance a higher plan thequran.love. Immediately after foretelling a political reversal, the Qur’an reminds us that previous peoples “were greater in power” yet were annihilated for their evils (30:9-10) – driving home the point that no might avails against God’s decree thequran.love. As one commentator notes, the Quranic philosophy of history is inherently moral: “worldly powers are transient, and sovereignty ultimately belongs to God.” thequran.love thequran.love

A vivid example can be seen in the Qur’an’s prophecy of the Roman–Persian War (Q.30:1–6). In the 7th century, the Persian Empire seemed utterly victorious, having humbled the Christian Byzantine (Roman) Empire. Yet the Qur’an predicted that the tide would turn in a few years – and indeed Byzantium made a stunning comeback, just as foretold thequran.love thequran.love. Muslim scholars highlight this episode to show that political tides can turn swiftly by Allah’s will, even when all empirical odds say otherwise thequran.love thequran.love. Abul A‘la Maududi, for instance, drew a timeless lesson from the Romans’ unlikely victory: “the fall and rise of nations demonstrates that ‘Allah exalts whom He wills and brings low whom He wills,’ warning the arrogant…and comforting the oppressed.” thequran.love. In other words, no empire can arrogantly assume its supremacy is invincible; God can raise or raze whom He pleases. The Quranic narration of these events gave the early Muslims a spiritual lens for geopolitics: they learned that worldly defeats or triumphs carry deeper significance as signs of God’s support or retribution. When the Persian victories had pagan Meccans crowing and Muslims despairing, the Qur’an’s prophecy and its fulfillment taught the believers not to interpret global events in purely materialistic terms. Instead, they were to remain patient and trust in God’s help, for “no matter how dominant the forces of falsehood seemed, they would be overturned” in the end thequran.love. The faithful were essentially told that they stood on the right side of history as long as they upheld monotheism and justice, since ultimately “Allah’s Will can never be thwarted” thequran.love. This engendered a profound hope and resilience: “The righteous should not despair in their darkest moments, for Allah’s help will come.” thequran.love. Such Quranic assurances continue to inspire Muslims to view the global balance of power through a spiritual framework. World events are to be “interpreted through a spiritual lens rather than a purely materialistic one” thequran.love – meaning that behind the rise of any nation or the collapse of any regime, there is a divine wisdom or judgement at work, even if it only becomes clear in hindsight.

The Qur’anic concept of istiḫlāf (succession) encapsulates this dynamic. God “makes you successors on the earth” generation after generation (Q.6:165, 10:14), implying that each nation holds power only temporarily before passing it on. No nation holds power permanently; one nation’s decline makes room for another, according to God’s plan thequran.love. The Quran cites past peoples – Noah’s people, ʿĀd, Thamūd, etc. – each flourishing for a time and then being replaced, often because of their moral failings thequran.love thequran.love. As the Qur’an succinctly puts it, “Such days [of varying fortunes] We alternate among the people” (3:140). Muslim thinkers historically took this as confirmation that God is the ultimate ruler of history, and that human rulers or “superpowers” are instruments to fulfill His scheme of justice thequran.love. When the early Muslim empire rapidly inherited the lands of Persia and Byzantium, they saw themselves as fulfilling this Quranic pattern of succession – a new vicegerent nation replacing others, with the onus to do better than their predecessors thequran.love thequran.love. Later, when the Muslim world fell into decline, scholars explained it in the same occasionalist terms: the Muslims were being deposed by divine will due to their own failings, much as past peoples were, and only repentance and reform could restore God’s favor thequran.love. In this view, worldly power is a conditional trust; when nations violate justice and truth, they forfeit their mandate, and God may empower another people in their stead thequran.love thequran.love. History thus becomes a cycle of moral trial: “every people’s vicegerency is conditional and transient, pending their behavior.” thequran.love

This theological perspective offers an antidote to triumphalism and despair alike. For the powerful, it is a warning: “A nation at its zenith might believe its power unassailable… [but] their might came from God and can be taken back by God”, so arrogance is misplaced thequran.love. For the oppressed or struggling, it is a comfort: no tyranny lasts forever, and God’s help can arrive in unexpected ways to overturn injustice. Indeed, the Quranic view of geopolitics aligns every contest with a larger cosmic struggle between truth and falsehood thequran.love. Believers gauge events by the yardstick of belief vs. idolatry, justice vs. corruption – confident that in the long run, “right will prevail by God’s decree, and the faithful will rejoice in the help of Allah” thequran.love. Thus, even in analyzing today’s world order – with its powerful nations, international institutions, and conflicts – a believer in occasionalism sees beyond the immediate actors. Ultimate sovereignty rests with Al-Malik (The King), and worldly actors succeed or falter as He wills, often as a reflection of moral causes. This does not negate the role of strategy or material factors, but it situates them within a transcendent framework: prosperity and power are part of a moral order orchestrated by God for the eventual triumph of justice thequran.love.

The Qur’anic Concept of Khalīfa (Vicegerent)

While God’s will is paramount, the Qur’an simultaneously assigns human beings a critical role in worldly affairs – that of Khalīfa, often translated as vicegerent, deputy, or successor. The term Khalīfa in Arabic means “one who succeeds another,” indicating an appointment of trust. In scripture, it signifies the role of humans as God’s representatives entrusted with authority and responsibility on Earth thequran.love. The notion is introduced when God announces to the angels His plan to create a vicegerent on earth: “I am going to place a khalīfa on Earth” (Qur’an 2:30). This was said about Adam, implying that humanity as a whole inherits a representative function. Throughout the Qur’an, the term and its plural (khulafā’ or khala’if) recur in various contexts: describing humankind collectively (e.g. Q.6:165 declares God “made you khalīfas on the earth”, elevating humans above many creatures), addressing specific communities who inherited power after others (as in Q.7:69 and 7:74, where prophets Hūd and Ṣāliḥ remind their people that God “made you successors after [the previous nation]”), and in reference to just leaders like Prophet Dāwūd (David) who is told “We have made you a khalīfa on earth” (Q.38:26). From these verses, Islamic scholarship derives a rich and multifaceted concept of vicegerency thequran.love thequran.love.

At its core, being God’s vicegerent means that humans exercise a delegated authority: they possess the ability to govern, alter the environment, and make moral choices, but always as agents of the divine will rather than independent sovereigns. The Qur’an emphasizes that this position is an āmānah (trust) and a test. “He it is who made you vicegerents in the land and raised some of you above others in rank, to test you through what He has given you” (Q.6:165). No human power is gained purely by one’s own merit – it is bestowed by God and comes with heavy responsibility thequran.love thequran.love. For example, the Quranic stories of past peoples serve to remind current vicegerents that if they succumb to corruption and arrogance, they too will be replaced. The successive nature of khilāfah – one nation following another – carries a clear admonition: “He reinforces the idea that no nation holds power permanently… rather, one nation’s decline makes room for another, according to God’s plan.” thequran.love Each “successor” has an opportunity to learn from the mistakes of the previous and uphold justice, or else face the same fate thequran.love thequran.love. The Qur’an illustrates this with the people of ʿĀd, who proudly boasted, “Who is mightier than us in power?” Only to be destroyed for their hubris (Q.41:15). The next people (Thamūd) were reminded by their prophet that their power was a favor from God and would be withdrawn if they repeated ʿĀd’s transgressions thequran.love. Thus, a Khalīfa’s legitimacy depends on humility and righteousness, not sheer might.

Importantly, the concept of Khalīfa has both a political and a moral-spiritual dimension. Politically, it underpinned institutions like the historical Caliphate (the leaders of the Muslim community saw themselves as “Khulafā’ of the Messenger of God” and guardians of the divine law) thequran.love. Shi‘a Islam extended this to the idea of Imāms as divinely guided successors. Even beyond formal titles, any ruler in Islamic theory is supposed to govern as God’s delegate, implementing Sharia (God’s guidance) and seeking justice. The verse addressing David (Q.38:26) explicitly links vicegerency with justice: “O David, We have made you a vicegerent on earth, so judge between people in truth and do not follow desire.” The Quranic ethos is that legitimate authority exists “to establish justice” according to God’s guidance thequran.love. On the other hand, the moral/spiritual dimension of khilāfah applies to all humans: we are stewards of the earth’s resources and of our own souls, accountable to God for how we use the faculties and influence given to us. Humanity’s vicegerent role also implies being caretakers of nature (a modern extension is Islamic environmental ethics) and upholders of moral order. In Islamic mysticism (Sufism), the idea goes even further – humans, by reflecting God’s names and attributes in their character, act as mirrors of the divine in creation, with the “Perfect Human” (al-insān al-kāmil) seen as the ultimate vicegerent manifesting God’s will on earth thequran.love.

The interplay of occasionalism and vicegerency is subtle but profound. If God is the only true power, one might ask: what real role do human vicegerents play? Islamic thought answers that humans have agency and responsibility within the parameters of God’s will. In essence, our freedom is not abolished by occasionalism; rather, it operates as part of God’s universal causation. Our choices and actions are the occasions upon which God brings about outcomes, and thus He commands us to act rightly. The Qur’an’s promise in verse 24:55 beautifully combines these ideas: “Allah has promised those among you who believe and do righteous deeds that He will surely make them successors (vicegerents) in the land as He made those before them successors, and that He will establish for them their religion… and will replace their fear with security….” thequran.love. Here, God’s sovereign decree guarantees eventual success and stability – but conditional on human faith and virtue. Righteous conduct is thus the means by which humans “earn” the mantle of vicegerency, while the actual fulfillment of power and security remains an act of God (“Allah has promised…”). Many scholars note that this verse came when the Prophet Muhammad and his followers were vulnerable in Madinah; it served as both reassurance and a call to steadfast action thequran.love thequran.love. History validated this promise: within a decade or two, the Muslims (through faith and sacrifice, and by God’s grace) were granted authority over Arabia and beyond. But the verse’s enduring import is that whenever the community of believers sincerely upholds justice and piety, God may grant them worldly strength as a tool to further good – a concept Muslims have invoked from medieval times to anti-colonial struggles, seeing political sovereignty as a gift from God to those who truly serve Himthequran.lovethequran.love. Conversely, loss of power can be a sign of divine displeasure, a spur for the community to return to the moral path thequran.love. In summary, the Khalīfa doctrine places moral parameters around political power: humans possess authority only as deputies of the Almighty, expected to govern by His law and ethics, and they remain answerable to Him for any tyranny or corruption committed under their watch.

Implications for Political Engagement in Modern Times

Belief in occasionalism and vicegerency significantly influences how a devout Muslim might engage with politics and view the global order today. First and foremost, it engenders an attitude of profound humility and reliance on God in political affairs. A Muslim who internalizes that “every outcome depends on Allah” thequran.love thequran.love will approach political activism, leadership, or resistance with the mindset epitomized by “Inshā’Allāh” (“If God wills”). This does not mean fatalistic inaction – quite the opposite. The Qur’an and prophetic example teach active striving: the early Muslims prepared for battles, sought alliances, and made strategic decisions, but always coupled their efforts with prayer, ethical conduct, and trust that “help comes only from God” thequran.love. The Battle of Badr is a case in point: the Muslims took up arms against a superior foe, yet the Qur’an insists their victory was won only by God’s intervention thequran.love thequran.love. The lesson is that believers should exert their utmost effort in just causes while knowing that victory or defeat ultimately lies in God’s hands. This mindset combats both despair and hubris in political engagement.

• No Despair in Adversity: An occasionalist worldview provides solace during periods of political weakness or injustice. A believer trusts that if their cause is righteous, God can at any moment change the situation – oppressive regimes can crumble unexpectedly, help can arrive in unforeseeable ways. The Quranic histories of David versus Goliath, Moses versus Pharaoh, or the prophecy of the Romans, all serve to remind that no situation is beyond God’s power to reverse. Modern Muslims inspired by this will persist in hope and patience (ṣabr) through dark times. They are counseled not to succumb to hopelessness, for “Allah’s help will come” when and how He wills thequran.love. This hope is not passive; it motivates continued effort and prayer, as one never knows which endeavor might be the divinely chosen instrument for change. For instance, many Islamic movements facing colonialism or tyranny cited Qur’an 24:55 (mentioned above) to reassure the community that faith-driven effort would eventually yield success by God’s promise thequran.love. Thus, an activist might pair lobbying for justice with heartfelt duʿā’ (supplication), knowing that hearts and circumstances change by God’s command.
• No Arrogance in Triumph: Conversely, when Muslims attain power or achieve political victory, the doctrine of divine causality urges them to remain humble and morally vigilant. Since God “exalts whom He wills and brings low whom He wills”, one’s time at the top is a test, not an entitlement thequran.love. Occasionalism reminds leaders that it was not solely their genius or strength that brought success, but the will of Allah using their actions. The Qur’an sternly warns those in power not to “boast as if you have attained this by your own might”, but to recall the fate of self-deluded nations before (Q.28:76–81, 41:15–16). A contemporary Muslim leader or activist, guided by these principles, would (ideally) exercise power with justice, shura (consultation), and service, conscious that God can remove them in an instant if they betray the trust. In practical terms, this means striving for policies aligned with ethical and Qur’anic values – protecting the poor and vulnerable, enjoining what is right and forbidding wrong – rather than realpolitik that transgresses moral bounds. The notion of vicegerency is essentially a check on the means and ends of politics: one cannot justify unethical methods by claiming a greater good, because all power and its outcomes belong to God, not to Machiavellian maneuvering. As vicegerents, humans must answer to a higher authority for how they attain and use power.
• Interpreting World Events Spiritually: A believer in occasionalism will also tend to interpret international events with an eye toward spiritual meaning. For example, geopolitical shifts might be seen as reminders of divine lessons: a superpower’s collapse might recall the Quranic pattern that injustice eventually leads to ruin, whereas the unexpected success of a downtrodden people could be viewed as God aiding the oppressed (cf. Q.28:5-6). This does not replace scholarly political analysis, but complements it by asking “Where is the hand of God in this?” and “What moral obligation does this event put on us?”. It fosters a sense of global responsibility: Muslims are taught to be aware of world affairs and feel concerned for justice beyond their borders thequran.love thequran.love. Historically, early Muslims rejoiced at the Byzantines’ victory because they saw it as a win for monotheism over paganism thequran.love. Similarly, a modern Muslim might spiritually “take sides” in conflicts based not on nationalism but on which outcome aligns more with justice or the protection of the innocent – essentially viewing politics as an arena for siding with truth against falsehood. Occasionalism adds the belief that even if the side of truth is weak, God can support it in unseen ways, so one should never shy from supporting the just cause out of fear of its futility.
• Balancing Activism with Reliance on God: Perhaps the most concrete practical implication is the ideal of tawakkul – trusting God while tying one’s camel. In political engagement, this translates to robust action paired with spiritual reliance. A Muslim reformer might organize communities, educate, protest injustice, and engage in democratic processes, but all the while pray for divine guidance and never lose sight that outcomes are in God’s control. This balance prevents burnout and the unethical “ends justify means” mentality. If a campaign fails, one can be content that it was not God’s decree at that time, and thus analyze mistakes and try again without despair. If it succeeds, one gives credit to God and remains humble, rather than being consumed by ego or triumphalism.

Finally, occasionalism instills a sense of ultimate optimism about the course of history. Despite the turmoil of the present world order – wars, oppression, and injustice – an Islamic occasionalist outlook holds that there is a divine narrative unfolding. The Qur’an’s promise that “the earth will indeed belong to My righteous servants” (21:105) and that God appoints “leaders from among them, guiding by Our command, when they are patient and certain of Our signs” (32:24) suggests that the long arc of history bends toward justice under God’s guidance. This does not guarantee that Muslims or any particular group will always prevail (for they, too, must uphold their end of the moral bargain), but it does affirm that God’s purpose for justice will ultimately be fulfilled. In practical terms, it means a Muslim engaged in political work should do so with hope and integrity, without resorting to cynicism or immoral tactics, since it is ultimately God who grants success. The concept of Khalīfa also means every individual has a role – however small – in enacting God’s will on earth. Even if one is not a head of state, one can be a vicegerent in one’s community or sphere, promoting justice and good governance in family, workplace, or local society. In an age where individuals often feel powerless, the Qur’an’s message that “each person is a guardian and each will be asked about their trust” empowers the believer with responsibility and purpose thequran.love.

Conclusion

In conclusion, viewing present-day political powers and the global order through the twin paradigms of occasionalism and vicegerency yields a distinctive understanding: All power belongs to God, yet humans are tested as stewards of that power. Empires and states may dominate headlines, but behind the veils of worldly causation stands the will of the Divine, allowing nations to flourish or decline in line with His justice and wisdom. For a believer, this means no political reality is ever purely man-made or permanent – it is “utterly contingent on God at every moment” thequran.love. Understanding this engenders humility in power, patience in adversity, and a moral compass in all political endeavors. Occasionalism reminds us that material causes and realpolitik never have the final say, while the Khalīfa concept reminds us that we are duty-bound to use whatever influence we have righteously. The present world order, with its superpowers and inequalities, can thus be approached not with fatalism or idolization, but with critical hope: knowing that God can change conditions when people change themselves (Q.13:11), and that He has put each of us on earth as a vicegerent to work for justice, “that He may observe how you will do” (Q.10:14). By coupling scholarly understanding with spiritual insight, one realizes that to believe in occasionalism is not to abandon the world to fate – it is to engage in the world’s betterment with the profound conviction that the final outcome rests with Allah. As the Quranic narrative of history teaches, “The righteous should not despair… for Allah’s help will come” thequran.love, and when it does, it is those who have acted as true vicegerents – with integrity, faith, and perseverance – who will be vindicated as agents of God’s plan on earth.

Sources: The above analysis is informed by Quranic verses and classical exegesis as discussed in Zia Shah’s Occasionalism in al-Ghazali’s Thought and the Quranic Emphasis on Divine Causality thequran.love thequran.love, The Roman–Persian War: Commentary on Qur’an 30:1–7 thequran.love thequran.love, and The Concept of Khalīfa in the Qur’an: A Comprehensive Analysis thequran.love thequran.love, among other scholarly works. These sources underscore that in Islamic thought, understanding world events requires both recognition of God’s hand in history and recognition of our role as accountable stewards. Together, these perspectives offer a holistic, faith-based approach to global politics – one that is academic in its depth, spiritual in its outlook, and practical in its guidance for those who seek to navigate modern challenges without losing sight of divine sovereignty and ethical responsibility.