Introduction

The discovery of quantum mechanics in the 20th century profoundly altered our understanding of causality, determinism, and the very nature of reality. In particular, quantum entanglement and quantum tunneling challenge classical assumptions about local causality and material necessity—concepts that have been foundational in Western philosophy since Aristotle. Interestingly, these developments resonate deeply with an older metaphysical framework: Al-Ghazali’s occasionalism, which holds that all causation is ultimately dependent on God’s direct will, and that material causes have no intrinsic power to produce effects.

This article argues that quantum mechanics, particularly entanglement and tunneling, provides empirical support for occasionalism. We will explore:

1. The scientific foundations of quantum entanglement and tunneling.
2. How these quantum effects challenge deterministic and materialist assumptions about causality.
3. How Al-Ghazali’s occasionalism offers a coherent metaphysical framework that aligns with quantum indeterminacy.
4. A comparison with Aristotle, Leibniz, and Hume, showing how occasionalism uniquely accounts for quantum phenomena.
5. The contemporary implications of this argument for debates in metaphysics, free will, and divine action.

1. Scientific Explanation: How Quantum Mechanics Challenges Classical Causality

Quantum Entanglement: Nonlocal Correlations and Causality Breakdown

Quantum entanglement is one of the most counterintuitive and experimentally verified aspects of quantum mechanics. It occurs when two or more particles become correlated in such a way that the state of one instantly influences the state of the other, regardless of the distance between them.

This was famously described by Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen in their EPR paradox (1935), who thought quantum mechanics must be incomplete because it allowed for “spooky action at a distance.” However, John Bell’s theorem (1964) and subsequent experiments (notably by Alain Aspect in 1982) showed that no local hidden variable theory can explain entanglement—meaning that the effect is real and fundamental to naturelications of entanglement include:

• Instantaneous Correlations: If two entangled particles are separated by light-years, measuring the state of one immediately determines the state of the other without any signal traveling between them.
• Violation of Local Causality: Classical physics assumes that objects influence each other only through direct interactions (such as forces or signals traveling through space). Entanglement defies this assumption.
• Measurement-Dependent Reality: In quantum mechanics, the act of measurement collapses a wavefunction, meaning that reality is not fully determined until an observation is made.

This nonlocality challenges the classical view of a mechanistic, cause-and-effect universe, where events are determined by local interactions. It suggests that the relationship between cause and effect is not inherent in matter itself, but rather depends on something beyond the material world—an idea remarkably similar to Al-Ghazali’s occasionalism.

Quantum Tunneling: The Breakdown of Deterministic Barriers

Quantum tunneling is another phenomenon that undermines classical causality. In classical physics, a particle needs sufficient energy to cross a potential barrier. However, in quantum mechanics, particles can “tunnel” through barriers that they do not have enough energy to overcome. This happens because, according to wave mechanics, particles have a probability amplitude that extends into regions that would be forbidden in classical physics.

Some key implications:

• Non-deterministic Outcomes: The likelihood of a particle tunneling through a barrier is determined by a probability function, not a definite cause-effect relation.
• Instantaneous Effects: The particle does not “travel through” the barrier; it simply appears on the other side, suggesting that causation is not sequential in the classical sense.
• Indeterminacy at Fundamental Levels: If physical laws were deterministic, a particle should never overcome an energy barrier without sufficient energy, yet tunneling occurs, showing that physical laws do not rigidly determine outcomes.

Like quantum entanglement, quantum tunneling shows that causality is not a self-contained feature of nature but something that depends on external conditions that we do not directly observe.

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2. The Philosophical and Theological Argument for Occasionalism

Al-Ghazali’s Occasionalism: The Doctrine of Divine Causation

Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali (1058–1111) articulated occasionalism in his work Tahāfut al-Falāsifa (The Incoherence of the Philosophers). He argued against the Aristotelian idea that causation is an intrinsic property of matter. Instead, he proposed:

• God is the sole cause of all events.
• What we perceive as “cause and effect” is merely habitual succession, not actual causation.
• Fire does not burn cotton by its own power; rather, God causes the burning each time fire touches cotton.
• Natural laws are descriptions of God’s customary actions, not necessary truths.

Ghazali’s occasionalism was criticized by rationalist philosophers like Ibn Rushd (Averroes), who defended Aristotelian causality. However, quantum mechanics suggests that Ghazali’s view is more compatible with reality than previously thought.

How Quantum Mechanics Supports Occasionalism

If we reconsider Ghazali’s occasionalism in light of quantum physics:

1. Entanglement and the Lack of Local Causation: Since entanglement violates local causality, it suggests that cause-effect relations are not inherent in material objects but are imposed externally. This aligns with Ghazali’s view that causation is not a property of matter but a result of divine action.
2. Quantum Tunneling and Non-Deterministic Events: Tunneling demonstrates that classical cause-effect chains break down. If a particle can “skip” over barriers without a direct force acting upon it, this implies that events do not necessarily follow from prior physical states. This is precisely Ghazali’s argument—physical objects do not bring about effects by their nature, but by the will of God.
3. Wavefunction Collapse and Divine Will: The measurement problem in quantum mechanics suggests that reality is only determined upon observation. If matter itself does not “choose” a state but remains in superposition until measured, then reality is not fully determined by material properties. This strongly parallels occasionalism, where God determines each event moment by moment.

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3. Comparing Occasionalism with Competing Philosophical Views

Aristotelian Causality vs. Occasionalism

Aristotle held that substances have intrinsic causal powers (e.g., fire necessarily burns, stones necessarily fall). Quantum mechanics challenges this by showing that objects do not have deterministic behaviors but probabilistic ones. Occasionalism fits better with quantum reality because:

• Quantum states do not follow strict causal chains.
• The universe exhibits contingency, not necessity—aligning with the idea that God directly wills each event.

Leibniz’s Pre-Established Harmony vs. Occasionalism

Leibniz proposed that God set up the universe with a pre-determined set of causal relations, meaning everything functions without further intervention. However, quantum mechanics shows non-deterministic effects, suggesting that events are not pre-programmed but actively determined. This supports Ghazali’s idea that God continuously governs reality, not just at creation.

Hume’s Skepticism vs. Occasionalism

David Hume argued that we have no rational basis to assert necessary causation; we only observe constant conjunction (A is followed by B, but we don’t observe the necessity of B following A). Occasionalism agrees with Hume’s critique but provides a theological answer: God, not nature, is the source of causation.

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4. Contemporary Implications

Occasionalism and the Philosophy of Science

Modern physics suggests that laws are statistical, not deterministic. If occasionalism is correct, then:

• Laws of nature are contingent descriptions of God’s habitual will.
• Miracles are possible, since natural law is not a fixed necessity.
• Materialist determinism fails, since physics already shows non-deterministic events.

Free Will and Divine Action

Occasionalism allows for divine intervention without violating physics. Since reality is not rigidly determined, God’s will can manifest in quantum events, and free will may operate within indeterminate systems.

Consciousness and Quantum Reality

Some interpretations of quantum mechanics suggest observer-dependent reality (e.g., the von Neumann-Wigner interpretation). If mind plays a role in determining reality, then a divine mind actively sustaining existence aligns with quantum mechanics.

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Conclusion

Quantum entanglement and tunneling reveal a universe where causality is not material, local, or necessary. Al-Ghazali’s occasionalism, once dismissed as theological mysticism, now finds surprising support in quantum physics. Reality does not run on deterministic laws, but on contingent events willed by God, moment by moment. In light of quantum mechanics, occasionalism may be one of the most empirically defensible metaphysical views in contemporary philosophy.