Promoted post: Demons and Jinns: A Scientific and Medical Examination of Their Non-Existence

Written and collected by Zia H Shah MD, Chief Editor of the Muslim Times

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Mentions of Demons in the Old Testament

Demons and Evil Spirits in Hebrew Scripture

Direct references to demons in the Old Testament are relatively rare, but they do appear. In several passages, Israel’s idolatry is described as sacrificing to “demons” (Hebrew shedim) rather than to God. For example, the Song of Moses says, “They sacrificed to demons that were no gods, to gods they had never known.”​

Similarly, Psalm 106 recounts Israel’s apostasy in Canaan: “They sacrificed their sons and their daughters to demons,” equating child sacrifice to pagan gods with the worship of demonic beings. These verses imply that the foreign gods of the nations were not merely lifeless idols but were linked to demonic forces. The term shedim itself likely comes from an Akkadian word for a spirit or demon, indicating that biblical writers sometimes viewed pagan gods as evil spirits​.

Other Old Testament references use different terms that later readers associate with demons. Leviticus forbids Israel from sacrificing in the open fields to “goat demons”, referring to goat-shaped desert spirits or satyrs​. We read: “So they shall no more sacrifice their sacrifices to goat demons, after whom they whore.”​

In a similar vein, after the kingdom divided, King Jeroboam’s idolatry is described in Chronicles: “And Jeroboam appointed his own priests for the high places and for the goat demons and calf idols he had made.”​

These goat-demons (Hebrew se‘irim, “hairy ones”) were satyr-like pagan nature spirits, showing the biblical writers’ contemptuous view that pagan deities were demonic​.

The Old Testament also contains vivid poetic imagery of night-demons. The prophet Isaiah, describing the desolation of Edom, says wild animals will haunt the ruins and “goat-demons shall call to each other; there too Lilith shall repose.” Lilith in Isaiah 34:14 (sometimes translated “night creature” or “night monster”) is understood in later Jewish tradition as a female night-demon. This shows that ancient Israel was aware of folkloric demon figures like Lilith and satyrs, even if these are mentioned only briefly in Scripture.

Importantly, the Hebrew Bible portrays all spirits as under God’s authority – even evil ones. On several occasions God is said to send or permit an “evil spirit” to accomplish His purposes. For instance, when King Saul turned away from God, “the Spirit of the LORD departed from Saul, and an evil spirit from the LORD tormented him.”​

Saul’s servants recognized his affliction and David’s harp playing eventually soothed the tormenting spirit (1 Samuel 16:14–23). Likewise, in the story of King Ahab, God allows a deceiving spirit to influence Ahab’s false prophets. A spirit volunteers to be “a lying spirit in the mouth” of the prophets, and the Lord permits it to entice Ahab to disaster (1 Kings 22:21–23). These narratives show that in Hebrew thought, evil spirits could trouble individuals, but they were not independent of God’s sovereignty​. In fact, Israel’s monotheism left little room for a dualistic evil force rivaling God – calamities and ailments were usually attributed to God’s judgment or permitted by Him, rather than directly to demons​. Thus, while demons and evil spirits appear in the Old Testament, they play a relatively minor role and always remain subject to God’s ultimate control.

Satan as Adversary in the Old Testament

A key figure related to Old Testament demonology is Satan, although the Hebrew word śāṭān originally means “adversary” or “accuser.” In the earliest texts, “the satan” is a title for an accuser in God’s court. The Book of Job describes Satan appearing among the heavenly beings to test Job’s righteousness (Job 1:6–12). In that scene Satan challenges God about Job’s motives and receives permission to inflict suffering – again indicating that any evil he does is by God’s allowance. Another example occurs in the prophetic vision of Zechariah: “He showed me Joshua the high priest standing before the angel of the LORD, and Satan standing at his right hand to accuse him.”​

Here Satan is explicitly an accuser of the righteous, opposing the high priest until the Lord rebukes him (Zechariah 3:1–2).

By the post-exilic period, the idea of Satan developed into a more personal embodiment of evil. In a later retelling of Israel’s history, we see Satan inciting David to sin: “Then Satan stood against Israel and incited David to number Israel.” (1 Chronicles 21:1). This contrasts with an earlier account attributing David’s temptation to the Lord’s anger (2 Samuel 24:1). The Chronicler’s use of “Satan” as the tempter shows a shift toward identifying a specific demonic adversary. Ancient Jewish literature outside the Hebrew Bible (such as the Book of Enoch and Dead Sea Scrolls) expands on this concept, portraying Satan (or figures like Belial and Mastema) as the leader of demonic forces in a cosmic war between good and evil​. Within the Old Testament itself, however, Satan is not described with the elaborate role he assumes in later theology. He appears as an accuser or tempter in a handful of texts, but without extensive narrative about a fall from heaven or a demonic kingdom (those ideas develop in the intertestamental period).

Demons and Foreign Gods

Crucially, the Old Testament often connects demons with the false gods of surrounding nations. The Israelites are warned that worshiping idols is not innocent – it is actually consorting with demonic powers. Moses tells the people that when Gentiles worship idols, “what they sacrifice they sacrifice to demons and not to God” (Deuteronomy 32:17; cf. 1 Corinthians 10:20)​. This understanding is echoed in Psalm 106: the idols of Canaan are described as snares, and those who serve them “shed innocent blood…whom they sacrificed to the idols of Canaan”, identified as sacrifices made “to demons.” In these passages, demons are essentially the spiritual reality behind pagan gods. By worshiping Baal or Molech, the Israelites were in effect engaging with demonic entities. This idea reinforced the seriousness of idolatry – it was not merely worship of stone and wood, but communion with malevolent spirits. The Old Testament thus lays a foundation for later Jewish and Christian demonology by equating pagan deities with demonic forces. As one scholar notes, “Foreign gods are called shedim…rendered ‘demons’ or ‘devils’ in most translations”, showing that Israel saw the gods of other nations as demonic imposters​.

In summary, the Old Testament acknowledges the existence of demons and evil spirits but keeps them on a tight leash under God’s authority. Demonic names like shedim, se’irim (satyrs), and possibly Lilith appear mainly in poetic or idolatry contexts. Satan figures as an accuser or tempter in a few places. Overall, demonic influence is most often linked to idolatry and deception rather than personal possession. Calamity or madness might be attributed to an “evil spirit,” but such a spirit is typically “from the Lord” (as in Saul’s case) – a striking difference from the New Testament worldview, where demons are cast out as enemies of God. The stage is set, however, for a developing understanding: by late Second Temple Judaism, Jews increasingly saw the world as a battleground between God’s angels and a hierarchy of demonic powers led by Satan​. This provides the background for the New Testament’s extensive mentions of demons and exorcism.

Mentions of Demons in the New Testament

Jesus’ Encounters with Demons (Gospels)

In the New Testament, references to demons explode in number and detail, especially in the Gospels. Jesus’s public ministry is marked by frequent encounters with demons, and the casting out of demons (exorcism) is a major sign of His authority and the inbreaking of the Kingdom of God. The term most often used is “unclean spirits” or “demons” (daimonia in Greek), and they are depicted as evil entities that can possess individuals, causing physical and spiritual harm. Below is a comprehensive list of key demonic encounters and exorcisms in the Gospels:

• Man with an Unclean Spirit in the Synagogue (Capernaum) – Jesus’s first miracle in Mark is an exorcism. While teaching in the synagogue, a man possessed by an unclean spirit cries out, “What have you to do with us, Jesus of Nazareth? Have you come to destroy us? I know who you are—the Holy One of God!” (Mark 1:24). Jesus rebukes the demon, saying “Be silent, and come out of him!” The unclean spirit convulses the man and leaves, astonishing the crowd (Mark 1:23–27; cf. Luke 4:33–36). This event demonstrates Jesus’s authority: “He commands even the unclean spirits, and they obey him.”​ Unlike any Old Testament prophet, Jesus casts out demons by his own word of command, not by incantation or ritual, signaling that a new power is present.
• Mass Healings and Exorcisms – The Gospels frequently note that Jesus expelled many demons during his ministry. For instance, after the Capernaum synagogue incident, people brought all the sick and demon-possessed to Jesus: “That evening they brought to him many who were oppressed by demons, and he cast out the spirits with a word” (Matthew 8:16)​. Mark says Jesus “healed many who were sick with various diseases, and cast out many demons” (Mark 1:34). Demons often recognized Jesus’s identity; Mark 3:11 notes that “whenever the unclean spirits saw him, they fell down before him and cried out, ‘You are the Son of God’”. Christ silenced them, not allowing them to speak. These summary reports show that exorcism was a routine part of Jesus’s work – wherever He went, evil spirits were driven out and people were freed.
• Gerasene Demoniac (Legion) – One of the most dramatic exorcisms is the healing of a man (or two men, in Matthew’s account) possessed by a multitude of demons in the region of the Gerasenes (or Gadarenes). This man lived among tombs, broke shackles, and was driven by the demons into the wild. Confronting Jesus, the demons cried out, “What have you to do with me, Jesus, Son of the Most High God?… Do not torment me” (Mark 5:7). Jesus asked, “What is your name?” and the reply came, “My name is Legion, for we are many” (Mark 5:9). The demons begged not to be sent out of the region, so Jesus permitted them to enter a herd of pigs. The herd (about 2,000 pigs) then rushed into the Sea of Galilee and drowned​. When the townspeople came, they found the formerly possessed man “sitting there, clothed and in his right mind” (Mark 5:15). This story (told in Mark 5:1–20, Matthew 8:28–34, and Luke 8:26–39) highlights Jesus’s vast authority – a legion of demons was no match for a single command from Him. It also reveals the destructive intent of demons (seen in the fate of the pigs) and the fact that demons recognize Jesus as the divine Son and Messiah.
• Daughter of the Syrophoenician Woman – Jesus also freed people from a distance. In one account, a Gentile woman begged Jesus to cast a demon out of her daughter. Initially, Jesus tested her faith, but when she persisted, He declared, “For this statement you may go your way; the demon has left your daughter” (Mark 7:29). The woman returned home to find her child delivered. Matthew’s version adds Jesus praising her faith, “O woman, great is your faith! Be it done for you as you desire”, and her daughter was healed instantly (Matthew 15:28). This episode (Mark 7:24–30; Matthew 15:21–28) shows that Jesus’s power over demons extends beyond the immediate vicinity – He can expel a demon without ever meeting the afflicted individual. It also foreshadows the extension of deliverance to Gentiles.
• The Epileptic Boy with a Mute Spirit – After the Transfiguration, Jesus encountered a boy possessed by a particularly stubborn demon. The evil spirit caused the child to be mute, to convulse, and even to fall into fire or water. The disciples had tried to cast it out and failed. Jesus then intervened. He rebuked the unclean spirit, “You mute and deaf spirit, I command you, come out of him and never enter him again!” and the demon shrieked and came out, leaving the boy like a corpse until Jesus took his hand and raised him up (Mark 9:25–27). Later, Jesus explained to the disciples that “This kind cannot be driven out by anything but prayer” (Mark 9:29, some manuscripts add “and fasting”)​. In Matthew’s account, Jesus also rebukes their lack of faith (Matthew 17:19–20). This miracle (recorded in Mark 9:14–29; Matthew 17:14–20; Luke 9:37–43) emphasizes that while Jesus has absolute power over demons, His followers must exercise faith and reliance on God to share in that authority.
• Mute and Blind Demoniacs – Matthew’s Gospel describes additional cases, such as a man who was blind and mute due to demon possession. Jesus healed him so that he spoke and saw, astonishing the crowds (Matthew 12:22). Earlier, Matthew 9:32–33 mentions Jesus casting out a demon from a mute man, enabling him to speak. These healings reinforced Jesus’s reputation, but also sparked controversy with the Pharisees (see below).
• Mary Magdalene and Others – The Gospels also mention individuals freed from demons as part of Jesus’s broader ministry. Luke notes a group of women disciples “who had been healed of evil spirits and infirmities: Mary, called Magdalene, from whom seven demons had gone out,”​ as well as Joanna, Susanna, and others (Luke 8:2–3). The number seven suggests Mary Magdalene endured severe bondage before Jesus liberated her. Though the exorcism itself is not narrated, this detail shows how complete her deliverance was. Likewise, the Gospels imply that many others were freed from various demonic oppressions as Jesus traveled through towns and villages.
• The Beelzebul Controversy – Jesus’s widespread casting out of demons led to a significant debate: the religious authorities accused Him of casting out demons by Beelzebul (or Beelzebub), the “prince of demons.” They could not deny Jesus’s power, so they maligned its source, suggesting Jesus was using satanic power to command lesser demons. In response, Jesus strongly refuted them: “If Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself. How then will his kingdom stand?” (Matthew 12:26). He pointed out that their own people practiced exorcism, asking, “By whom do your sons cast them out?” and noted those acts would condemn their hypocrisy​. Jesus then made a pivotal statement: “If it is by the Spirit of God that I cast out demons, then the kingdom of God has come upon you” (Matthew 12:28, cf. Luke 11:20)​. This means Jesus viewed his exorcisms as direct evidence of God’s reign breaking into the world. He likened Himself to a stronger man who binds the “strong man” (Satan) and plunders his goods (setting free those held by demonic power) (Mark 3:27). The charge that Jesus was in league with Satan He called an unforgivable blasphemy against the Holy Spirit, because it willfully misattributed the Spirit’s work to the devil. The Beelzebul incident (found in Matthew 12:22–32; Mark 3:22–30; Luke 11:14–23) thus highlights the spiritual warfare motif of the Gospels: Jesus is the divine warrior overpowering the devil’s kingdom, not by satanic trickery but by the finger of God.
• Teachings on Unclean Spirits – Jesus also taught briefly about the behavior of demonic spirits. He warned that an “unclean spirit” cast out of a person may wander waterless places, then return to find its former home “empty, swept, and put in order.” If the person has not filled his life with God’s presence, the demon brings seven other spirits more wicked than itself, and they re-occupy the person, leaving him worse off than before (Matthew 12:43–45; Luke 11:24–26). This teaching underscores the need for true conversion and the indwelling of the Holy Spirit after deliverance – merely being rid of a demon is not enough if one remains spiritually empty.

In all these encounters, Jesus is portrayed as having absolute authority over demonic powers. The demons recognize who He is (calling Him the Holy One of God or Son of God), they beg for mercy or limits, and they obey His commands. Unlike contemporary Jewish exorcists who used elaborate rituals or invocations, Jesus expels demons with a simple authoritative word​. The people marveled, “He commands even the demons, and they come out!” (Luke 4:36). The Gospels present Jesus’s exorcisms as a key sign that He is the Messiah. As Matthew notes, the crowds wondered if this was the Son of David when they saw the mute demoniac healed (Matthew 12:23), and Jesus Himself pointed to His exorcisms as evidence of His messianic mission​. Casting out demons demonstrated the arrival of God’s kingdom and the downfall of Satan’s dominion.

Authority Given to the Disciples

Jesus did not keep this authority to Himself; he conferred power over demons to His followers as well. When He first sent out the Twelve Apostles, “he gave them authority over unclean spirits, to cast them out, and to heal every disease and every affliction” (Matthew 10:1; cf. Mark 6:7, Luke 9:1)​. The disciples went out and indeed drove out many demons, anointing the sick with oil and healing them (Mark 6:13). Later, Jesus sent out seventy-two disciples, and upon their return they joyfully reported, “Lord, even the demons are subject to us in your name!” (Luke 10:17). Jesus affirmed this victory, saying, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven”, and he gave them authority “over all the power of the enemy,” while cautioning them to rejoice more that their names are written in heaven (Luke 10:18–20). These accounts indicate that the power to cast out demons in Jesus’ name was not limited to Jesus Himself, but was a sign that accompanied the ministry of His followers as they proclaimed the Gospel. In the longer ending of Mark, Jesus promises, “These signs will accompany those who believe: in my name they will cast out demons” (Mark 16:17), showing that exorcism would continue as part of Christian witness​. Indeed, the early church found that the name of Jesus is powerful to expel evil spirits – a theme that continues into the Book of Acts.

Demons and Exorcism in Acts

The Book of Acts provides several examples demonstrating that the early Christians continued Christ’s work of casting out demons, further validating the message of the Gospel:

• Philip in Samaria: As Philip the evangelist preached Christ in Samaria, many were delivered from demonic oppression. “For unclean spirits, crying out with a loud voice, came out of many who had them”, and many paralyzed or lame people were healed​. The result was great joy in the city (Acts 8:7–8). This shows that the ministry of exorcism accompanied the spread of the gospel beyond Judea, bringing freedom and joy to those who had been in spiritual bondage.
• Paul and the Fortune-Telling Slave Girl: In Acts 16, the Apostle Paul encounters a slave girl at Philippi who had a “spirit of divination” (literally, a Python spirit) and earned money for her owners by fortune-telling. For days she followed Paul and Silas, shouting that they were servants of the Most High God. Eventually, Paul had enough and performed an exorcism: “Paul, having become greatly annoyed, turned and said to the spirit, ‘I command you in the name of Jesus Christ to come out of her.’ And it came out that very hour.”​ Immediately the girl was freed from the spirit’s power – and her owners, seeing their hope of profit gone, dragged Paul and Silas to prison. This incident (Acts 16:16–18) highlights the use of Jesus’ name in exorcism. Paul did not cast out the demon by his own authority, but invoked Jesus, and the evil spirit obeyed. It also underscores the clash between the gospel and occult economic enterprises in the Greco-Roman world.
• Extraordinary Miracles in Ephesus: Acts 19:11–12 reports that through Paul, God did astonishing miracles in Ephesus – even handkerchiefs or aprons that had touched Paul were brought to the sick, and “their diseases left them and the evil spirits came out of them.” Such was the anointing on Paul’s ministry that demons were driven out at a distance through proxy objects, demonstrating God’s compassion and power.
• The Seven Sons of Sceva: Also in Ephesus, a cautionary tale unfolds with the seven sons of a Jewish high priest named Sceva. They attempted to invoke the name of Jesus whom Paul preaches to cast out demons, but they themselves did not know Jesus. When they tried to exorcise one man, “the evil spirit answered them, ‘Jesus I know, and Paul I recognize, but who are you?’”​ The possessed man then leaped on them and beat them badly, sending them out naked and wounded. This episode (Acts 19:13–17) shows that the name of Jesus is not a magic formula to be used without faith or authority. The demon acknowledged Jesus and even Paul, but would not submit to pretenders. The event became known throughout Ephesus, and it caused fear and the magnifying of Jesus’ name. Many who had practiced sorcery repented, burning their magic books (Acts 19:18–20). Thus even a failed exorcism served God’s purpose by exposing the reality of demons and the supreme authority of Christ’s name when wielded by true believers.
• Confrontations with Occult Figures: Acts also depicts clashes between the gospel and occult practitioners. In Acts 13:6–12, Paul confronts Elymas (Bar-Jesus), a sorcerer opposing the Gospel, and rebukes him as “a son of the devil” (Acts 13:10). Although this is more a pronouncement of judgment (striking Elymas blind) than an exorcism, it aligns with the theme of apostolic authority over demonic influence. Additionally, Acts 5 records Peter challenging Ananias with the question, “Why has Satan filled your heart…?” indicating an awareness of Satan’s activity even within the church (Acts 5:3). And when Paul later recounts his own conversion, Jesus’ words to him were that he was sending Paul to the Gentiles “to open their eyes, so that they may turn from darkness to light and from the power of Satan to God” (Acts 26:18). In all these instances, the early Christians clearly viewed the spread of the Gospel as delivering people not only from sin and sickness but from demonic power and Satan’s kingdom.

Taken together, the New Testament narratives present a world alive with spiritual conflict: demons are real, active, and hostile, causing affliction, yet they are decisively defeated by Jesus Christ and those who minister in His name. Exorcism is portrayed as a sign of Christ’s messianic authority and a standard part of the apostolic ministry. This is a marked shift from the Old Testament, reflecting the developing revelation of Satan and demons. By the time of Jesus, Jews firmly believed in demonic spirits as the forces behind idolatry, disease, and evil, and exorcists existed among them (as implied in Matthew 12:27). Jesus, however, brought an unprecedented degree of power and permanence to deliverance – demons that could only be temporarily warded off by others were commanded and banished by Christ. This victory over demons is further developed theologically in the New Testament letters.

Demons in the Epistles: Pauline and Johannine Perspectives

Outside the Gospel narratives, the New Testament writers reflect on the nature of demons and spiritual warfare in the Christian life. Pauline theology acknowledges the reality of demons but places them within a larger framework of Christ’s cosmic victory and the moral vigilance of believers. Paul confirms the Old Testament idea that pagan idols are backed by demonic beings, warning the Corinthian church: “What pagans sacrifice they offer to demons and not to God. I do not want you to be participants with demons.”​

Here Paul prohibits Christians from joining in pagan temple feasts because it would be communion with demonic powers (1 Corinthians 10:20–21), echoing Deuteronomy 32:17. In this view, idolatry is literally demon worship, and believers must flee it.

Paul also recognizes demonic influence in false teachings and apostasy. He writes that “the Spirit expressly says that in later times some will depart from the faith by devoting themselves to deceitful spirits and teachings of demons” (1 Timothy 4:1). In other words, behind the rise of heresies and false doctrines are demonic entities leading people astray. This aligns with Paul’s description of Satan as “the god of this world” who “has blinded the minds of the unbelievers” to keep them from seeing the gospel (2 Corinthians 4:4). Paul knew that the struggle of Christians is ultimately against spiritual forces: “For we do not wrestle against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the cosmic powers over this present darkness, against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly places.” (Ephesians 6:12). He portrays a hierarchy of demonic (and angelic) powers – sometimes called principalities, powers, thrones, or dominions – which Christ has conquered. Believers, therefore, must put on the armor of God to stand against the devil’s schemes (Eph 6:11–18).

Yet Paul is clear that these evil powers are decisively defeated by Christ’s death and resurrection. In Colossians 2:15, he says Christ “disarmed the rulers and authorities and put them to open shame, by triumphing over them” on the cross. Thus, while demons still threaten and tempt, they have no ultimate claim on those in Christ. Paul encourages believers that God “delivered us from the domain of darkness and transferred us to the kingdom of His beloved Son” (Colossians 1:13). We are warned to not give the devil an opportunity through sin (Ephesians 4:27), and Paul even talks of church discipline in terms of “delivering [an unrepentant sinner] to Satan” for the destruction of the flesh so his spirit may be saved (1 Corinthians 5:5). This suggests that being put outside the fellowship of the church is seen as putting one back in Satan’s realm, hopefully to induce repentance. Overall, Paul acknowledges Satan and demons as real adversaries – he even calls Satan “the tempter” (1 Thessalonians 3:5) and notes “Satan hindered us” from travel (1 Thess. 2:18) – but he always exalts Christ’s superiority. “The God of peace will soon crush Satan under your feet,” he assures the Romans (Romans 16:20). And famously, “even the demons believe – and shudder”, as James 2:19 adds​, underscoring that the demonic realm knows God’s power and trembles before it.

In Johannine theology, the focus is on the stark contrast between God’s children and the devil’s influence. The Apostle John does not recount exorcisms in his Gospel the way the Synoptics do, but he frequently mentions the devil (Greek diabolos) and Satan. Jesus in John’s Gospel calls Satan “the ruler of this world” (John 12:31; 14:30) and declares that this ruler “has no claim” on Him. Jesus also tells His opponents, “You are of your father the devil… He was a murderer from the beginning… he is a liar and the father of lies” (John 8:44), identifying the devil as the instigator of human unbelief and hatred of truth. Uniquely, John’s Gospel describes Satan’s direct influence in the betrayal: “Then after [the] morsel, Satan entered into [Judas]” (John 13:27), showing a personal indwelling by the devil to carry out his plot against Jesus. People even accuse Jesus of “having a demon” in John (John 7:20, 8:48), which Jesus of course denies – these slurs echo the Beelzebul charge in the Synoptics.

John’s epistles continue these themes. He emphasizes that Jesus came to destroy the devil’s work: “The reason the Son of God appeared was to destroy the works of the devil” (1 John 3:8). He divides humanity into children of God versus children of the devil (1 John 3:10). While he doesn’t mention demons as often, John does speak of the “spirit of the antichrist” and warns that many false prophets have gone out, with demonic inspiration behind them (1 John 4:1–3). He comforts believers, “He who is in you is greater than he who is in the world” (1 John 4:4), meaning the Holy Spirit within Christians is greater than Satan (“the one in the world”). Moreover, “the whole world lies in the power of the evil one” (1 John 5:19), a sober reminder of Satan’s broad (though ultimately doomed) influence. John’s apocalyptic book of Revelation pulls back the curtain on the cosmic war, depicting Satan as the great red dragon and ancient serpent who leads a host of fallen angels. Revelation 12 describes a war in heaven in which the archangel Michael casts Satan and his angels down to earth. The defeated dragon is identified as “that ancient serpent, who is called the devil and Satan, the deceiver of the whole world” (Revelation 12:9). In Revelation, demons are mentioned as foul spirits empowering the Beast’s empire (e.g., “every foul spirit, a haunt of every foul and hateful bird” in fallen Babylon, Revelation 18:2) and performing deceptive signs (Revelation 16:13–14 speaks of “unclean spirits like frogs” coming from the dragon, beast, and false prophet to gather the world’s armies). Ultimately, John foresees the final defeat of Satan and his demonic hosts – Satan is bound during the millennium and later thrown into the lake of fire (Revelation 20:2, 10). Thus, the Johannine contribution (Gospel, letters, and Revelation) to demonology is the strong dualism of light vs. darkness, God vs. the devil. While not describing many individual demonic encounters (except in Revelation’s symbolic visions), John leaves no doubt that behind the scenes of history, “the dragon” (Satan) furiously wars against God’s people, but “the Lamb” (Christ) will triumph.

In summary, the New Testament teaches that demons are fallen spiritual beings under Satan’s leadership that deceive, enslave, and harm humanity – but that Jesus Christ, by His authority and cross, has decisively overcome them. Believers are called to resist the devil (James 4:7, 1 Peter 5:8–9) and can be confident in Christ’s victory. Exorcism in Jesus’ name continued in the apostolic age as a testimony to that victory and as a means of compassionate deliverance for those afflicted.

Historical Interpretations of Demons and Exorcism

Ancient Jewish Understanding of Demons and Their Origins

During the Second Temple period (roughly 5th century BC through 1st century AD), Jewish views on demons expanded and became more systematized, influenced by both biblical reflections and surrounding cultures. While, as noted, the Hebrew Scriptures give limited information on demon origins, intertestamental literature attempted to explain where demons come from and how they operate. A prominent tradition found in texts like 1 Enoch is the idea that demons are the disembodied spirits of the Nephilim — the giant offspring of fallen angels (the Watchers) and human women described briefly in Genesis 6:1–4. According to the Book of Enoch, the Watchers descended to earth, sinned with women, and taught humanity corrupt arts; their hybrid children, the Nephilim, were destroyed by the Flood, but their spirits survived as roaming evil spirits (1 Enoch 15:8–12). These wandering spirits became the demons that plague mankind, seeking bodies to inhabit and wreaking havoc on earth. This story is not in the biblical canon, but it was influential in Jewish thought and is alluded to in the New Testament (for example, 2 Peter 2:4 and Jude 1:6 mention angels who sinned and are kept in chains).

Other Jewish writings name specific demon leaders like Asmodeus (found in the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit, where the archangel Raphael exorcises Asmodeus from Sarah) and Belial or Mastema (frequently mentioned in the Dead Sea Scrolls as chief of the forces of darkness)​. The Dead Sea Scrolls show a strong dualistic worldview: the Qumran community saw history as a battle between the “Spirit of Truth” and the “Spirit of Perversity,” with Belial (a name for Satan meaning “Worthless” or “Wicked”) leading the latter. One fragment states that Belial’s domain included “spirits of destruction” and deceit that caused people to sin​. The Qumran Community Rule even includes prayers to be delivered from “the spirit of Belial.” Thus, by the time of Jesus, many Jews believed in a well-organized demonic realm under a chief devil.

Ancient Jewish tradition also developed rituals and incantations for exorcism. The Gospels imply there were Jewish exorcists (Jesus asks in Luke 11:19, “by whom do your sons cast [demons] out?”). Historian Flavius Josephus describes one such exorcist named Eleazar, who purportedly used a ring and Solomon’s name to draw demons out through the victim’s nose, even presenting this to Vespasian in the 1st century​. Many Jews attributed exorcistic power to King Solomon, with later legends claiming he authored spells or songs to cast out demons (reflected in the apocryphal Testament of Solomon). Aramaic incantation bowls and amulets from late antiquity also witness to a thriving practice of attempting to ward off or expel demons through magical names and formulas. All of this shows that belief in demons and the need to combat them was firmly established in Jewish culture by Jesus’s day. The strict monotheism of early Israel had given way (under Persian and perhaps Hellenistic influence) to a more dualistic view where God’s goodness is opposed by a kingdom of evil spirits​. This cultural background is the stage onto which Jesus stepped, fulfilling Jewish hopes of a Messiah who could definitively defeat Satan and his demons.

Early Christian Traditions and the Development of Exorcism

The early Christians inherited both the Jewish understanding of demons and Jesus’s example and authority in defeating them. The Apostolic Church continued to practice exorcism, as seen in Acts and the experiences of figures like Paul. Casting out demons became one of the marks of the true faith in the post-apostolic age. Early Christian apologists like Justin Martyr (2nd century) pointed to exorcisms done in Jesus’s name as evidence of the superiority of Christianity. Justin wrote that “numberless demoniacs throughout the whole world, and in your city, many of our Christian men – exorcising them in the name of Jesus Christ… have healed and do heal, rendering helpless and driving the possessing devils out of the men” (Second Apology, ch. 6). He argued that the pagan gods were actually demons and that they trembled at the name of Jesus when Christians cast them out​. Similarly, Tertullian (late 2nd – early 3rd century) challenged pagans to bring forth someone possessed in court; when a Christian commanded the spirit to speak, Tertullian claimed, the demon would confess itself to be a false god, thus proving the truth of Christianity (Apology, ch. 23). These accounts show that exorcism was a common occurrence in the life of the early Church, used in evangelism to demonstrate Christ’s power over demons.

As the Church grew, it began to formalize the ministry of exorcism. By the 3rd century, there is evidence of a minor order of exorcists in the Church. For example, the Church at Rome under Pope Cornelius (c. 250 AD) had a list of clergy that included exorcists. These individuals were not priests but had the task of attending catechumens (new converts) and those troubled by evil spirits, using prayer and the name of Jesus to deliver them. The practice of exorcism in preparation for baptism also took shape – catechumens underwent prayers of exorcism and renunciation of Satan before being baptized, a tradition that continued thereafter. The Apostolic Tradition attributed to Hippolytus (early 3rd century) describes rites where candidates are prayed over and exorcised during their catechumenate.

Church Fathers like Origen and Augustine provided theological reflections on demons. Origen (3rd century) wrote extensively about fallen angels and demons, considering them rational beings who fell by their own will and suggesting that some might even eventually be restored (a view later deemed unorthodox). Augustine (late 4th – early 5th century) firmly taught that demons are fallen angels who rebelled against God and were cast out of heaven with Satan. Augustine warned against consulting demons (e.g., via astrology or magic) and emphasized Christ’s triumph over them. He also noted that demons could produce real effects (illusions or afflictions) but were restrained by God’s greater power. The Patristic consensus was that demons are malignant spiritual beings who tempt humans to sin, promote idolatry, and even masquerade as pagan gods or ghosts to deceive people – but they are subject to the name of Jesus, the sign of the cross, and the power of the Holy Spirit present in the Church’s sacraments and saints.

Over time, as Christianity became the dominant religion of the Roman Empire, overt demon possession seems to have become less prominently recorded (perhaps in part because pagan practices waned). However, exorcism never disappeared. In the medieval Western Church, exorcism became more ritualized. The Roman Ritual eventually provided a formal Rite of Exorcism (the Rituale Romanum of 1614 codified the prayers and actions for solemn exorcisms, which continued, updated in 1999). This rite includes Scripture readings, the Litany of the Saints, adjurations to the demon, and the commanding of the demon to depart in Jesus’s name. The Eastern Orthodox Church likewise has prayers of exorcism attributed to saints like Basil and John Chrysostom, used especially in the context of baptism (Orthodox baptismal liturgies to this day include prayers of exorcism where the priest blows three times and commands any evil spirit to depart from the candidate).

In the Middle Ages, belief in demons was virtually universal in Christendom. Every illness or misfortune might be attributed (sometimes over-attributed) to demonic influence. Exorcists and healers were in demand. Sadly, some superstitious or abusive practices also crept in, and not all alleged demonic cases were handled with the discernment we expect today. Still, genuine exorcisms were reported by many saints. For instance, St. Francis of Assisi and St. Dominic were said to have cast out demons. The hagiographies (lives of saints) from various centuries often include exorcism accounts, which served to show the sanctity and divine favor on the saints.

The Reformation in the 16th century led to differing views on exorcism among Christians. The Catholic Church maintained the traditional practices and the office of exorcist (though it dropped “exorcist” as a minor order in 1972, it still designates priests to this ministry). Protestants initially also believed in and performed exorcisms – Martin Luther, for example, affirmed the reality of demons and is said to have rebuked them (his famous throwing of an inkwell at the devil is legendary). Early Anglican liturgies included exorcism prayers in baptism. However, as Protestant theology developed, some branches became more cautious about exorcism. Rationalist influences in later centuries led many to interpret demonic possession in naturalistic terms (mental illness, etc.), especially in mainline traditions. Meanwhile, other Protestants (particularly in the Pentecostal and charismatic movements of the 20th century) experienced a revival of deliverance ministry, emphasizing the casting out of evil spirits as part of healing and evangelism, much like the early church.

In summary, historically, Christians have consistently understood demons to be fallen angels or malevolent spirits opposed to God, and exorcism as the act of delivering persons from demonic possession or influence by the power of God. Ancient Jews contributed the idea of demons as sources of disease and sin, and early Christians confidently used Jesus’s name to expel them, continuing Jesus’s mission. Over time, the practice was formalized but never lost. Whether through a simple command by a saint, or a lengthy official rite, the core conviction remained that Christ’s name and power will triumph over demonic forces.

Theological Analysis and Contemporary Views

Demonology and Exorcism in Different Christian Traditions Today

Christian belief in demons and practice of exorcism persist to this day, though different traditions approach the topic with varying emphasis and nuance. Catholic, Orthodox, and many Protestant communities all affirm the reality of Satan and demons as personal evil beings (not merely symbols of evil), but they differ in how they manage claims of demonic possession or oppression.

• Catholic Church: The Catholic Church maintains a very structured approach to demonology and exorcism. Catholic theology teaches that demons are fallen angels – created good by God, but who irrevocably rejected Him and were cast out of heaven with Satan as their leader (Catechism of the Catholic Church §391–395). Demons are active in the world, but under Christ’s authority and ultimately defeated by Him. The Catholic Church has an official rite for exorcism (the Rite of Major Exorcism), which is performed only by specially appointed priests (usually with the permission of a bishop). These priests, often simply called “exorcists,” receive training to discern between mental illness and genuine demonic influence and to carry out exorcisms according to the prescribed prayers of the Church. The ritual involves invoking the name of Jesus, the power of the cross, and the intercession of saints and angels. The Church is careful and skeptical in cases of alleged possession – psychological evaluation and medical review are sought first. Only when natural causes are ruled out might a formal exorcism be authorized. Minor exorcisms are also part of the Catholic baptismal liturgy – for instance, in the preparation for infant baptism, there is a prayer of exorcism (now often a general prayer for deliverance from original sin and the devil’s influence). Catholic tradition also provides many sacramentals (holy water, crucifixes, medals, etc.) which are believed to repel evil spirits when used in faith. Overall, Catholics view exorcism as a pastoral ministry of charity for the afflicted and a sign of the Church’s God-given authority over demons. Contemporary Catholic leaders (such as recent popes) have spoken openly about Satan as a real force and encouraged the ministry of exorcists, while warning against seeing the devil behind every problem.
• Eastern Orthodox Church: Orthodox Christianity shares the same ancient consensus on demons as fallen angels and often emphasizes the reality of spiritual warfare in the life of the believer. Orthodox theology and spirituality frequently mention combating the “passions” (sinful impulses) instigated by demons and seeking the protection of God, the Theotokos (Virgin Mary), and the saints against demonic snares. The Orthodox Church has exorcism prayers, particularly in the rite of baptism. In an Orthodox baptism service, there are explicit prayers of exorcism where the priest blows three times and says, “Expel from [this person] every evil and unclean spirit hiding and lurking in their heart!” and the catechumen (or godparent on their behalf) renounces Satan and all his works. These prayers underscore that one cannot serve Christ without first denouncing the devil. While Orthodoxy does not have a centralized process for major exorcisms like the Roman Rite, priests may perform exorcism prayers as needed, usually drawing from those written by saints like St. Basil or St. John Chrysostom. Orthodox tradition is rich with stories of holy monks or elders who through prayer and fasting freed people from demons – reflecting Jesus’s teaching that some demons require prayer and fasting to cast out. A distinctive aspect of Orthodoxy is the view that the best defense against demonic influence is a holy life and continual prayer (especially the Jesus Prayer). The sacraments, icons, and prayers of the Church are believed to drive away evil spirits. Thus, Orthodoxy certainly believes in exorcism, but it is often integrated into the wider context of spiritual healing and ascetic struggle, rather than as a standalone dramatic ministry (though instances of formal exorcism do occur).
• Protestant Traditions: Protestant views on demons and exorcism are varied, ranging from strong affirmation to skepticism, largely depending on the denomination and theological outlook. Evangelical and Pentecostal Christians generally affirm that demonic possession and oppression are real and can be confronted in Jesus’s name, just as in apostolic times. Many Pentecostal/charismatic churches have “deliverance ministries” where trained teams pray for individuals who may be afflicted by evil spirits. They often use prayer, commands in the name of Jesus, and sometimes fasting or worship to drive out demons. Their practices might not follow a fixed liturgy as in Catholicism, but are based on biblical models (like those in the Gospels/Acts) and the guidance of the Holy Spirit. These Christians point to verses like Mark 16:17 (“in My name they will cast out demons”) and to contemporary testimonies of changed lives as evidence that exorcism is a continuing gift to the Church. On the other hand, mainline Protestant denominations (such as many Anglicans, Lutherans, and Methodists) have been more cautious. Some have official rites for exorcism or “deliverance” in rare cases (the Church of England, for example, has diocesan advisors on deliverance ministry), but they tend to keep it low-key. Mainline churches may first interpret alleged possession cases in medical or psychological terms, resorting to exorcism prayers only in extraordinary situations. Additionally, some liberal theologians in Protestant circles interpret biblical demon possession accounts as pre-scientific descriptions of mental illness or epilepsy; they may not believe in personal demons at all. However, a significant number of Protestants do accept a biblical demonology and practice exorcism, even if they might call it by a different name (such as “spiritual deliverance” or “prayer of deliverance”). Lutheran tradition, for instance, historically included an exorcism in the baptism rite (Luther’s Baptism liturgy had a line, “Depart, you unclean spirit, and make room for the Holy Spirit”). Many Lutheran churches today omit that, but the belief in demonic forces still exists in their theology of the devil as a real enemy (as seen in Luther’s famous hymn: “For still our ancient foe doth seek to work us woe… his craft and power are great, and armed with cruel hate – on earth is not his equal”). Reformed (Calvinist) Christians likewise acknowledge Satan’s reality but often stress that outright possession is less common; they focus more on demonic temptation and oppression that Christ helps believers overcome.

In recent times, non-denominational deliverance ministries have proliferated, sometimes with high-profile exorcists or “demonologists” offering seminars, books, or even mass deliverance sessions. These vary widely in credibility. Some are rooted in sound biblical teaching and careful discernment; others unfortunately lapse into sensationalism or see demons behind every sin (to the point of an almost comical “demon of laziness” or “demon of neck pain” being blamed for every problem). Discernment is key, and most mainstream churches (including charismatics) advise caution and balance – acknowledging the demonic but not obsessing over it.

Additional reading to understand the contemporary and the secular world

Birth of Modern Medicine: Jean-Martin Charcot’s Analysis of Shrine of Our Lady of Lourdes

Demons and Jinns: A Scientific and Medical Examination of Their Non-Existence