Written and collected by Zia H Shah MD, Chief Editor of the Muslim Times

Introduction:

Sunni Islam, which comprises the majority of Muslims, understands the essence of Islam as submission to the one God (Allah) and alignment with His guidance as revealed in the Qur’an and Sunnah. At its core are the Six Articles of Faith – belief in one God (Tawhid), His angels, His revealed books, His prophets, the Day of Judgment, and divine decree (Qadar). These principles are deeply rooted in the Qur’an and prophetic teachings, forming the bedrock of Sunni ‘aqīdah (creed). Over centuries, Sunni scholars developed nuanced theological schools (notably Ash‘arism, Maturidism, and Atharism) to articulate and defend these beliefs. They also engaged with questions of reason vs. revelation, divine will vs. human freedom, and the inner spiritual life. Below is a comprehensive analysis of these themes, integrating Quranic foundations with both historical and contemporary Sunni perspectives.

Quranic Foundations: Tawhid, Prophecy, Divine Justice, and Eschatology

Tawhid (Divine Oneness): The uncompromising oneness of God is the central theological principle of Islam. The Qur’an emphatically declares God’s unity and uniqueness: “Say, ‘He is God, the One. God, the Absolute. He begets not, nor was He begotten. And there is none comparable to Him’.”. This short chapter (Al-Ikhlāṣ, Qur’an 112:1-4) is often described as encapsulating Tawhid, affirming that Allah alone is eternal, without partner or equal. All other beliefs in Islam radiate from this core truth, which is why tawhīd is called “the fountainhead of Islam.”​ In Sunni theology, God’s oneness is not merely numerical (one God vs. many) but absolute – He is the sole creator and sustainer of all that exists, possessing perfect attributes and free of any deficiency. For Sunnis, affirming tawhīd also means worshipping Allah alone and understanding His names and attributes as He revealed, without ascribing human qualities to Him or dividing His essence.

Prophecy (Nubuwwah): Another essential aspect of Sunni creed is belief in the prophets and messengers through whom God communicated His guidance. The Qur’an highlights the role of prophets from Adam through Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and finally Muhammad – peace be upon them all – who brought revelations to their people. Muhammad, in particular, is affirmed as Khatam al-Nabiyyīn, the “Seal of the Prophets”. The Qur’an states: “Muhammad is not the father of any of your men, but he is the Messenger of Allah and the seal of the prophets”. In Sunni understanding, this means Prophet Muhammad ﷺ is the final prophet whose revelation (the Qur’an) and example (Sunnah) complete God’s message to humanity. The prophets are seen as morally exemplary and infallible in conveying God’s religion. Through them, especially through the Qur’an, Sunnis derive the Shariah (divine law) and the core tenets of faith and practice. Prophecy is also tied to divine mercy: sending guidance is a just and merciful act from God so that humans are not left unguided.

Divine Justice and Good vs. Evil: In the Qur’an, Allah is repeatedly described as absolutely just and fair. “Indeed, Allah does not do injustice even to the weight of an atom; and if there is a good deed, He multiplies it and gives a great reward from Himself”. Divine justice (‘adl) in Sunni Islam means that God wrongs no one – each soul is responsible for its own choices and will meet the consequences thereof on the Day of Judgment. However, Sunnis traditionally refrain from placing obligations upon God; unlike the Mu‘tazilites (rationalist theologians, discussed later) who claimed God must reward the good and punish the evil to be just​ britannica.com, Sunni orthodoxy (especially the Ash‘ari school) asserts that good and evil are as God defines them. God is Just in Himself – injustice (ẓulm) is understood as something God would not do, not something He could not do (for nothing limits God’s power). In practice, this means Allah, by His own attributes of justice and truth, will fulfill His promises of reward and punishment, but He is not bound by any external standard above Himself. The Qur’an’s emphasis on mercy also tempers the understanding of justice – Allah may forgive whom He wills. Sunni theology thus balances hope and fear: God’s justice ensures accountability, while His mercy offers hope of forgiveness.

Eschatology (Ākhirah – Afterlife and Judgment): Belief in life after death and final judgment is a cornerstone of Islamic creed, profoundly shaping Sunni ethics and worldview. The Qur’an provides vivid descriptions of resurrection, the Day of Judgment, Heaven (Paradise) and Hell, and the weighing of deeds. One Quranic passage notes both God’s omniscience and human accountability: “As God is all-knowing and all-powerful, everything that has happened and will happen is already known (to Him). At the same time, human beings are responsible for their actions, and will be rewarded or punished accordingly on Judgment Day.”. In Sunni understanding, this worldly life is a test, and the essence of Islam includes preparing for the eternal life to come. Sunni theologians elaborated on the signs of the end times and the nature of the resurrection using Quranic verses (e.g., Qur’an 36:51-54) and hadith. The reality of eschatological justice (that the good attain salvation and the wicked face consequences) reinforces moral responsibility. It ties back to tawhīd as well: only the One God is Master of the Day of Judgment (Qur’an 1:4), and His judgment will be perfectly just. In summary, Qur’anic foundations – the oneness and transcendence of God, the guidance brought by prophets, divine justice and mercy, and the reality of an afterlife – collectively form the essence of Islam as understood by Sunnis. These core principles are universally accepted among Sunni Muslims, even as different theological schools offer nuanced interpretations of some details.

Sunni Theological Schools: Ash‘arism, Maturidism, and Atharism

Within Sunni Islam, three major theological approaches have articulated the creed while defending it against various challenges: Ash‘arism, Maturidism, and Atharism (also known as Traditionalism or Ahl al-Hadith). All three affirm the same fundamental beliefs (outlined above) but differ in methodology and philosophical nuance. It’s important to note that Ash‘ari and Maturidi teachings are often considered twin orthodoxies in Sunnism with only subtle differences​ en.wikipedia.org, whereas Atharism represents a more literalist stance. Together, they enriched Sunni thought:

• Atharism (Textualism): The Athari school emphasizes strict adherence to the texts of the Qur’an and authentic hadith, eschewing speculative theology (kalām) and philosophical reasoning in matters of creed. The name “Athari” comes from athar (report or tradition), reflecting its scripturalist approach. Athari scholars (like Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal in the 9th century and later Ibn Taymiyyah in the 14th) taught that Muslims should accept statements about God in revelation “bi-lā kayf” – “without [asking] how” ​en.wikipedia.org. This means attributes of God mentioned in the Qur’an (such as God’s “hand” or “throne”) are affirmed without delving into their exact modality: neither negating them nor likening them to creation. By avoiding metaphorical reinterpretation, Atharism aims to preserve the transcendence of God and the simplicity of belief that the first generations of Muslims (Salaf) had. Example: When the Qur’an says “The Most Merciful rose above the Throne” (Qur’an 20:5), Atharis say we affirm it as true in a manner befitting God, without questioning “how”. Atharism also holds that human reason has limits and can fall into error, so it should not be given precedence over clear revealed texts. This approach has contemporary resonance in Salafi movements, which claim to emulate the early Athari creed by sticking closely to the Quranic wording and prophetic traditions, wary of later philosophical accretions.
• Ash‘arism: Founded by Imam Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ash‘arī (874–936 CE), this school represented a middle path between pure textualism and the rationalist Mu‘tazilite school (which had gained influence in early Abbasid times). After initially following Mu‘tazilite ideas, al-Ash‘arī switched course and formulated a theology that used reason as a tool subservient to revelation. Ash‘ari theology affirms all the Qur’anic beliefs (Tawhid, prophecy, etc.) but allows for rational arguments to defend them. Key features of Ash‘arism include:
• • Divine Attributes: Ash‘arites accept that Allah has eternal attributes (such as life, power, knowledge, will, hearing, seeing, and speech) as affirmed by scripture. However, they insist these attributes do not compromise God’s oneness – they are not separate “parts” of God but qualities inherent to His essence. Faced with anthropomorphic texts, Ash‘aris often resort to ta’wīl (interpretation) to avoid likening God to creation. For instance, they may interpret God’s “hand” as a metaphor for power or generosity, unless such interpretation clearly contradicts consensus. This differed from Atharis who prefer no interpretation at all. Both approaches aimed to steer away from crude anthropomorphism while affirming what God revealed ​plato.stanford.edu.
• • Occasionalism and Causality: In explaining how the world operates under God’s omnipotence, Ash‘arites developed the idea of occasionalism. They argued that God is the only true cause of events; what we perceive as cause-and-effect in nature is simply the habitual sequence Allah created. For example, fire does not intrinsically burn; rather, God creates the burning at the moment of contact. This was Ash‘arism’s way of safeguarding tawhīd – ensuring that power belongs solely to God at every instant. It also underpins their view of miracles (God can suspend the usual order at will). The Ash‘ari theologian al-Ghazālī famously used occasionalism to refute philosophers’ claims of necessary causality, maintaining that the laws of nature are just God’s customs, not constraints on Him ​plato.stanford.edu.
• • Free Will and “Acquisition” (Kasb): Ash‘arism took a nuanced stance on human free will (explored more below). Briefly, it argued that while all actions are created by God’s power, humans acquire responsibility for their acts through their intentions and will. This doctrine of kasb was a way to reconcile accountability with God’s all-encompassing decree. It leans somewhat deterministic, reflecting Ash‘arites’ priority on divine omnipotence, but it preserves moral responsibility by asserting that humans willfully perform the acts that God creates in them.
• • Epistemology: Ash‘arites held that certain truths (like basic morality or God’s existence) can be known by reason, but revelation remains the supreme guide. They often cite the Quran’s invitation to reflect on nature and self as evidence (e.g. Qur’an 30:8, 51:20–21), yet they stop reason where the naṣṣ (text) provides a clear but suprarational truth (e.g. matters of the unseen).
  Over time, Ash‘arism became a dominant theological school in the Sunni world (adopted by many Shāfi‘ī and Mālikī scholars). It was refined by scholars like al-Baqillānī, Imām al-Ḥaramayn al-Juwaynī, al-Ghazālī, and Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī. Contemporary perspective: The Ash‘ari creed is still taught in many Sunni seminaries (for instance, Al-Azhar University largely follows Ash‘ari-Maturidi doctrine). It provides intellectual tools to engage modern philosophical challenges while staying grounded in Quranic revelation.
• Maturidism: Founded by Imām Abū Manṣūr al-Māturīdī (d. 944 CE) in Central Asia, this school developed in parallel with Ash‘arism. In fact, Ash‘ari and Maturidi doctrines differ only on minor points and are essentially one tradition in Sunni orthodoxy ​en.wikipedia.org. Maturidism became prevalent among Ḥanafī Sunni Muslims (in areas like the Ottoman Empire, Mughal India, etc.). Key traits of Maturidi theology include:
  • Role of Reason: Maturidīs placed slightly more trust in human reason than Ash‘arīs did. They taught that unaided reason can derive certain ethical and theological truths – for example, that some actions are inherently good or evil, and that there must be a Creator. A Maturidi might argue that even without a revealed law, the human mind could recognize murder or theft as evil. This contrasts with a stricter Ash‘ari view that good and evil are only known through revelation (except in very basic matters). However, Maturidis agree that reason alone is not enough for salvation; revelation is still needed for specifics of worship and to outstrip human limitations.
• • Free Will: On predestination, Maturidism also strikes a middle ground. Maturidis taught that humans do have genuine agency – we make real choices – but it is God who creates the outcomes of those choices. In one formulation, “God grants human beings their agency, but can withdraw or alter it at any time”. They upheld the doctrine of kasb (like Ash‘aris) but explained it in a way slightly more sympathetic to free will. In practice, an oft-cited Maturidi analogy is that of a servant using a tool given by a king: the servant (human) has the ability to use the tool (free will), but the tool (power to act) fundamentally belongs to the king (God).
• • Divine Attributes: Maturidis, similar to Ash‘aris, affirmed Allah’s eternal attributes and rejected anthropomorphic literalism. One subtle difference: on the issue of God’s speech and the Qur’an, Maturidis agreed the Qur’an is the uncreated speech of God (like Ash‘aris), but when explaining how it exists in time (as recited words), they offered a slightly different philosophical explanation. Such differences are intricate and largely “linguistic quibbles” ​en.wikipedia.org that do not affect the average believer’s understanding.
  Historically, Maturidism was less in direct conflict with Mu‘tazilites (due to geography) and thus developed in a more scholastic, less polemical fashion than Ash‘arism. Today, Maturidi doctrine underpins the creed taught in many traditional Ḥanafī institutions (for example, in Turkey, the Caucasus, South Asia). It exemplifies how Sunni theology can value rational insight while still anchoring truth in the Qur’an.

In summary, Sunni theological schools differ in approach but not in the articles of faith. Ash‘ari and Maturidi schools (collectively Ahl al-Kalām) embrace a measure of dialectical theology to defend Sunni creed, whereas Atharism (Ahl al-Ḥadīth) prefers simple, scripture-centric belief. All three, however, uphold tawhīd, prophecy, scripture, the hereafter, etc., and were united in refuting what they saw as heterodox views (such as extreme rationalism or anthropomorphism). A renowned saying among Sunnis is that Ash‘aris and Maturidis are the dual imams of Ahl al-Sunnah – indicating that despite minor differences, they are seen as equally orthodox​ en.wikipedia.org. These theological interpretations provided intellectual richness to Sunni Islam’s essence, ensuring it could be understood by the layperson and yet robustly discussed by scholars.

Reason and Revelation in Sunni Thought (Islamic Epistemology)

One of the defining characteristics of Islamic theology is the interplay between reason (`aql) and revelation (naql). Sunni tradition, especially through the Ash‘ari and Maturidi perspectives, has navigated this relationship carefully. The Qur’an itself encourages the use of reason: “Will you not use your reason?” appears often (e.g. Qur’an 2:44, 36:62) and the creation is described as full of signs for people of understanding. At the same time, the Qur’an asserts that some truths are beyond human guesswork (e.g. matters of the unseen).

Sunni balance of Reason and Revelation: Generally, Sunni Islam holds that revelation is the supreme source of truth, but reason is an essential God-given tool to understand and interpret revelation. As one scholar put it, Al-Ash‘ari “insisted that reason must be subservient to revelation” – that is, human logic should operate within the boundaries set by God’s words, not independently coin doctrine. This was a reaction against the Mu‘tazilite tendency to let rational concepts (like pure justice or human free will) override the apparent meaning of scripture. For Sunnis, if the Qur’an or authentic hadith texts provide a definitive teaching, that is accepted even if its full wisdom isn’t grasped by reason alone. Example: Revelation informs us of angels and jinn – beings unseen and beyond scientific verification. Sunni theologians accept their existence based on scripture, while using reason to discuss their properties only so far as the texts allow.

At the same time, Sunni scholars extensively used reason to serve faith: developing arguments for God’s existence, responding to philosophical skeptics, and systematizing theological knowledge. During Islam’s “Golden Age” (9th–12th centuries), when Greek philosophy and science were being studied in Muslim lands, Sunni theologians engaged with these ideas to bolster Islamic doctrine. They articulated proofs for the existence of a Necessary Being (God) – e.g., the kalam cosmological argument (contingency of the universe implies a Creator) – and addressed issues like the problem of evil in light of God’s attributes. The Ash‘ari scholar al-Ghazālī famously wrote Tahāfut al-Falāsifa (“Incoherence of the Philosophers”) to critique certain Aristotelian ideas that, in his view, contradicted Islamic tenets (like the eternity of the world). Yet, al-Ghazālī did not dismiss reason wholesale; in fact, he used logical arguments in that very rebuttal. His stance epitomized the Sunni view: some philosophical conclusions were rejected not because “reason is bad” but because they misused reason beyond its proper limits or contradicted clear revelation​ plato.stanford.edu.

Ilm al-Kalām vs. Literalism: In Sunni history, there was sometimes tension between the Kalām scholars (Ash‘ari/Maturidi) and the staunch traditionalists (Atharis). The former argued that rational theology was necessary to defend Islam from heretical ideas and to deepen understanding. The latter cautioned that excessive speculation might corrupt the pure faith and lead to doubts. This debate itself was a manifestation of reason vs. revelation: the Athari stance was that the safest epistemology is simple reliance on textual proof and the understanding of the early Muslims, avoiding subjective reasoning in creed. Ash‘arites and Maturidis, on the other hand, believed that controlled use of dialectical reason (jadal) could harmonize with revelation and illuminate its truths.

For example, on the question of God’s attributes, Atharis said to accept them bi-lā kayf (without asking “how”), effectively suspending reason to avoid error. Ash‘arīs agreed on not asking “how” in a literal sense, yet they employed reason to explain that divine attributes must be understood in a manner fitting His transcendence (often via metaphorical interpretation). Both claimed Quranic justification: Atharis pointed to verses like “None knows the true interpretation except Allah” (Qur’an 3:7) to leave matters unquestioned, while Ash‘arīs pointed to verses urging reflection to justify their theological reasoning. In practice, Sunni Islam has accommodated both tendencies – a testament to its flexibility. Many Sunni scholars were conversant in philosophy and logic but remained grounded in scriptural piety (e.g., Ibn Rushd/Averroes wrote on philosophy yet upheld Islamic law as a judge).

Sunni Epistemology: Besides reason and revelation, Sunnis also recognize consensus (ijmā‘) and analogy (qiyās) as secondary sources in law and to some extent in creed. But when it comes to core theology, the consensus of the Prophet’s companions and early generations is often invoked: for Sunnis, true reason does not conflict with authentic revelation. If there is an ostensible conflict, either the reasoning is flawed or the understanding of the text is incomplete (warranting interpretation). This epistemological stance allowed Sunni theology to be dynamic yet anchored – open to scholarly debate and philosophical insights, but always referring back to the Qur’an and the Prophetic tradition as the ultimate criteria of truth.

In modern times, this balance continues to play out. Contemporary Sunni thinkers at times disagree on how far reason can go in reinterpreting aspects of Islam (e.g. debates on science and scripture, or ethics and law). Revivalist movements often favor the literalist approach (asserting that the Qur’an and Sunnah are clear and sufficient), whereas academic theologians might employ modern philosophy or science to re-present Islamic beliefs (for instance, using contemporary ethical language to explain divine justice, or engaging with modern philosophy of mind when discussing the soul). Despite these different approaches, mainstream Sunnis agree that reason and revelation are complementary: reason is seen as a gift from God to understand faith, not to override it. As one classical principle states, “Sound reason and authentic revelation do not contradict, for truth aligns with truth.”

Divine Will (Qadar) vs. Human Free Will in Sunni Theology

One of the oldest theological debates in Islam revolves around Qadar (God’s decree or predestination) and human free will. The Qur’an clearly indicates that Allah has foreknowledge and power over all things, yet it also holds humans responsible for their choices. Sunni tradition strives to uphold both truths, even if our finite minds struggle to fully reconcile them. The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ succinctly put it: “Work (righteously), for each of you will be facilitated to what you were created for” – implying that we should act with moral responsibility even though God’s decree encompasses all outcomes.

Qur’anic perspective: Verses emphasize Allah’s complete sovereignty – e.g., “Allah has power over all things” (Qur’an 2:20) – alongside verses that affirm human accountability – e.g., “Whoever does an atom’s weight of good shall see it, and whoever does an atom’s weight of evil shall see it” (Qur’an 99:7-8). The Quranic paradigm is that nothing occurs except by God’s will, yet humans choose belief or disbelief by their will, for which they are answerable (Qur’an 18:29). This dual emphasis gave rise to different theological interpretations in early Islam:

• Jabriyya (Fatalists): An early extreme view (rejected by Sunnis) held that humans have no free will, being compelled in all their actions by divine predestination. This view overstated Qadar to the point that human life became like a leaf in the wind. Such fatalism was seen as incompatible with God’s justice and the moral urgency of the Qur’an’s commands and prohibitions. Sunni scholars strongly opposed this: Islam teaches personal responsibility – one cannot blame God for one’s sins as an excuse.
• Qadariyya and Mu‘tazila (Libertarians): At the opposite end, the Qadariyya (and later the Mu‘tazilite theologians) argued that in order for God to be just, human free will must be absolute. They denied any effective divine predestination in human acts. According to the Mu‘tazilites, “God has no power over human actions” in the sense that He does not create our evil deeds – to say otherwise would make God responsible for evil. They asserted humans create their own actions entirely, so that reward and punishment are fully deserved. They even considered the doctrine of Qadar (as held by Sunnis) to be a form of predestinarian injustice. However, the Qur’an’s statements about God’s creative will behind all events conflicted with an absolute free-will doctrine.
• Sunni Position – A Middle Path: Sunni theologians charted a middle course, rejecting both absolute fatalism and absolute libertarianism. As noted earlier, Ash‘ari and Maturidi schools developed the doctrine of “acquisition” (kasb): God creates the act, and the human being, by exercising will and intention, “acquires” the act and its moral responsibility. In simpler terms, every ability and opportunity we have is from God, yet how we use those gifts is our choice. Allah’s prior knowledge (‘ilm) and decree encompass our choices, but do not force them – His foreknowledge is like an infallible mirror of what will happen, not a coercive power that makes us choose a certain way. A classic Sunni analogy describes the relationship as: God is like a teacher who knows a student so well that He knows the student will fail or pass – the knowledge doesn’t cause the failure, the student’s own study or negligence does. Meanwhile, any good the student does (like studying hard) is only successful by the facilitation (tawfīq) given by the teacher (God). Thus, in Sunni view, everything happens by God’s will, yet we are accountable for our willing actions. The Sunni creed (per the Hadith of Gabriel and numerous texts) includes belief in “al-qadar, khayrihi wa sharrihi” – divine decree, its good and its bad, i.e., all aspects of fate are from Allah. But this is always paired with the belief in the Judgment, implying our deeds under decree still matter to our fate.

Sunni theologians often cite the saying of ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib: “Free will and predestination are like the two sides of a coin”, meaning both are real in their own way. Another famous maxim from the early Imams (especially in Shi‘i sources, but adopted by many Sunnis in spirit) is: “Neither absolute compulsion (jabr) nor absolute delegation (tafwīḍ), but a matter in-between the two.” This encapsulates the moderate view. Notably, Imām Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (a descendant of the Prophet revered in Shīʿa tradition) explained this middle stance by saying: “If God forced His servants to act, then He would not justly punish them; and if He completely withdrew from the affair, then He would not have absolute power. But the reality is that God created you with an ability and gave you guidance (to choose right), so whoever chooses rightly – it is by God’s support, and whoever chooses wrongly – it is by God’s abandonment of him.” This sentiment is very close to the Sunni Ash‘ari view and shows an area of agreement across Islamic traditions.

Kasb (Acquisition) in depth: Al-Ash‘ari’s kasb doctrine essentially said: Allah creates in the human soul a power (qudrah) with which it can act. When a human wills to perform an act at a given moment, God creates that act in accordance with the human’s intention. Thus the act is attributable both to God (as Creator) and to the human (as acquirer/doer). This is how Sunnis attempted to preserve God’s total omnipotence (nothing occurs outside His creation) and human responsibility (we are the ones who decide to do what we do). While kasb was criticized as being somewhat enigmatic (even later Sunni scholars admitted the exact mechanics are ultimately a mystery known only to God), it became the standard Sunni explanation.

Maturidi refinement: The Maturidi school gave a slightly different twist: they posited that humans have an “instinctual ability” or capacity granted by God, which makes the act truly ours. God’s creation of the act is in giving existence to what we have chosen by that capacity. Either way, both schools agreed that God’s will and human will are not on the same level – the former is absolute and encompasses the latter, but does not eradicate it. They often quote Qur’an 81:29: “You cannot will except as Allah wills.” Human will is real but contingent on the divine will.

Eschatological resolution: Sunnis also resolve the tension by deferring full understanding to Allah’s perfect knowledge. On Judgment Day, the Qur’an says no soul will be wronged – meaning whatever the interplay of divine decree and free will, each individual will recognize that their punishment or reward is just. Ash‘ari theology even allows that God’s justice is whatever God does – we trust that He by definition cannot be unjust. However, the Qur’an also suggests that humans have no excuse for misdeeds (“the devils will say on Judgment: we only invited you, you accepted by your own choice,” Qur’an 14:22), underscoring personal accountability.

Historical and political angle: In early Islamic history, attitudes toward free will and predestination had political overtones. The Umayyad rulers sometimes leaned on predestinarian ideas to claim their rule (even if tyrannical) was “willed by God”. In response, dissidents and early Qadarites insisted on free will to hold rulers accountable for injustice. The Mu‘tazilite adoption of free-will doctrine was partly to defend God’s justice and contest fatalist narratives. On the other hand, during the Mihna (inquisition) under the Abbasids, enforced Mu‘tazilite theology led traditionalists to entrench the view of divine decree as a mark of Sunni identity (resisting the idea that humans could override God’s will). Over time, the Sunni position solidified as a carefully balanced creed, one that Imam al-Tahawi’s famous Sunni creed summarizes: “Allah has decreed everything… but He also held people responsible for what they do, and none can excuse himself by blaming destiny.”

Contemporary perspective: Today, discussions of predestination in Sunni Islam often intersect with questions of science (genetics, determinism) and personal psychology. The classical Sunni stance continues to be taught – that we should neither deny God’s decree nor use it to evade responsibility. Many Sunni scholars emphasize the practical upshot: Work as if you have free will, rely on God as if everything is in His hands. In daily life, this means a Muslim should make ethical choices and efforts, but if outcomes don’t go as hoped, they find solace in believing “it was God’s decree” and thus avoid excessive regret or anxiety. Conversely, one cannot willfully sin and then shrug it off as “my fate” – that would be a misapplication of Qadar doctrine. The balance of qaḍā’ wa’l-qadar (divine decree and destiny) remains a profound theological mystery, but Sunni tradition holds that affirming both aspects is part of the essence of faith. The humility in acknowledging human limited understanding here is itself considered a sign of faith – God’s wisdom is ultimate, as the Qur’an says: “No soul knows what it will earn tomorrow” (Q.31:34) – yet God knows, and He will judge with justice and mercy.

Comparative Perspectives: Sunni vs. Shi‘a and Mu‘tazilite Theologies

While all Muslims share the foundational testimony “There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His Messenger,” different Islamic traditions have interpreted the essence of Islam through distinctive theological lenses. Comparing Sunni theology with Shi‘a (especially Twelver and Isma‘ili) and Mu‘tazilite thought highlights both common ground and key divergences:

1. Divine Oneness (Tawhid) and Attributes: All Islamic schools uphold tawhīd, but nuances arise regarding God’s attributes. Sunnis (Ash‘ari/Maturidi) affirm attributes like life, knowledge, power, will, hearing, seeing, speech as eternal qualities of God, while strictly negating any anthropomorphism. Twelver Shi‘a theology, especially under the influence of thinkers like Shaykh Mufīd (10th c.), came to align with this view in many respects – classical Imami doctrine similarly affirms attributes but often with a more apophatic tone (emphasizing God’s absolute transcendence). Early Shi‘a theologians in the tradition of the Imam Ja‘far al-Ṣādiq tended toward a negative theology (denying that God has “limiting” attributes), which was not far from the Sunni Ash‘ari approach of interpreting or negating anthropomorphic descriptions. In contrast, the Mu‘tazilites pushed tawhid to an extreme by virtually denying real attributes: they argued that saying God has attributes besides His essence compromises His unity, so they described all attributes as metaphorical or identical with God’s essence. For example, instead of God having knowledge, Mu‘tazila would say God is Knowledgeable by His essence alone, with no distinct attribute. Sunnis critiqued this as effectively “divesting” God of the meaningful descriptions He gave of Himself. Sunnis held a middle position: neither likening attributes to creation (tashbīh) nor nullifying them (ta‘ṭīl). Shi‘a theologians eventually took a similar middle path (though some early Shi‘a had Mu‘tazilite leanings on this issue). Ismā‘īlī theology, on the other hand, often described God in highly transcendent terms, sometimes using Neoplatonic language: they stressed God is beyond all names and attributes to the extent of an absolute unknowability. Yet, in practice, everyday Shi‘a devotion, like Sunni, calls upon God by His names (al-Raḥmān, al-Raḥīm, etc.), showing that for the believer the attributes are a means to know and love God, even if theologians philosophize about their ontological status.

2. Prophethood and Imamate: Sunnis and Shi‘as agree on the finality of Prophet Muhammad and the truth of prior prophets, but Shi‘ism adds the doctrine of Imamate as a continuation of divine guidance. For Twelver Shi‘a, the Imams (starting with ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib and his eleven successors from the Prophet’s family) are seen as inheritors of the Prophet’s spiritual and temporal authority – sinless and divinely guided, though not recipients of new revelation. The essence of Islam in Twelver Shi‘ism thus includes belief in the Imamate as one of the uṣūl al-dīn (fundamental principles of religion), on par with tawhid, prophecy, and resurrection. Sunnis do not have this concept; leadership of the community (Caliphate) for Sunnis was a matter of political shura (consultation) and historical circumstance, not a fixed tenet of faith. This difference affects theological outlook: Shi‘a hadith collections include many sayings of the Imams elucidating doctrine, whereas Sunnis rely on the sahābah (companions) and later scholarly consensus for interpretation after the Prophet. Isma‘ili Shi‘ism extends Imamate even further, with a living Imam (today Aga Khan for Nizaris) who is seen as the authoritative interpreter of scripture, sometimes vested with nearly infallible teaching authority. In Isma‘ili thought, the Imam can unveil the bāṭin (inner meaning) of the Qur’an beyond the ẓāhir (outer text), which means reason and philosophy were given a significant role to understand esoteric truths. By contrast, Sunni Islam puts the prophetic revelation and the scholarly tradition as the guide, and any spiritual authority (like a Sufi shaykh) is informal and not a doctrinal pillar.

3. Divine Justice and Theodicy: Shi‘a Islam (especially Twelver) was heavily influenced by Mu‘tazilite teachings on divine justice (‘adl). In fact, ‘Adl (Justice) is listed as the second fundamental principle in Twelver creed, just as the Mu‘tazila made it a pillar of their theology. This means Twelver theologians generally assert that God does not do evil, and He would never act unjustly – for instance, they argue Allah would not punish someone who did not deserve it or act without wisdom. Sunnis also believe God is just, but Ash‘ari theology famously declared that good and evil are defined by God’s commands, not by human reasoning. In an oft-cited Ash‘ari view, if God were to send the most pious believer to Hell (purely hypothetically), it would not be “unjust” of God – it’s only deemed unjust from our perspective because God Himself has informed us He wouldn’t do that. Mu‘tazilite (and Shi‘a) theologians strongly rejected such hypotheticals, maintaining that certain actions (lying, oppression) are inherently beneath God’s perfection. In practice, however, both Sunnis and Shi‘a believe God will do as He promised – reward the righteous, punish the wicked – they differ mainly in philosophical framing. Mu‘tazilites took the problem of evil as a central concern: since God is just and wise, evil must result from human misuse of free will. Ash‘arite Sunnis, by contrast, were content to say that what we perceive as evil or suffering has hidden divine wisdom and is part of God’s decree, which ultimately is just even if we don’t fully grasp it. This leads to subtle differences in emphasis: Shi‘a theology tends to accentuate human free will (to safeguard God’s justice), whereas Sunni theology (especially Ash‘ari) emphasizes submission to God’s decree (highlighting His sovereignty). Importantly, the Māturīdī Sunni school is closer to the Shi‘a/Mu‘tazili view here, as it holds that God by His justice would not demand from humans what is impossible or punish them for what they could not avoid – a principle of justice that in Maturidi thought even God adheres to by His own nature.

4. Free Will and Predestination: As noted, Mu‘tazilites championed free will fervently, and Twelver Shi‘ites largely inherited this inclination (especially after the 10th century when Mu‘tazilite-influenced scholars like Sharif al-Murtada and Shaykh al-Mufid systematized Imami theology). The Shi‘i formula “amr bayn amrayn” (a matter between two matters) essentially corresponds to the Sunni “middle path” – so on practical terms, Twelver Shi‘a today believe, like Sunnis, in both Qadar and human choice. Isma‘ili theology historically was less focused on the Qadar debate, being more occupied with cosmological emanation theories, but as a branch of Shi‘a, they too stress God’s wisdom and likely lean towards a moderated free-will view.

5. Sources of Knowledge (Reason vs. Revelation): Mu‘tazilites are known for making reason (ʿaql) almost co-equal to revelation. They held that certain truths of faith must accord with rational principles – for instance, God must do what is just and best, a conclusion of reason that they argue the Qur’an supports. Sunnis critiqued them for effectively subordinating God’s freedom to human logic. Twelver Shi‘a scholars in the classical period, like the Mu‘tazilites, extolled ʿaql – in Shi‘a legal theory, ‘aql is actually considered one of the four sources of law (alongside Qur’an, Sunnah, and consensus). In theology, Shi‘a thinkers often used Mu‘tazilite arguments and later adopted a lot of Peripatetic philosophy (e.g., the School of Isfahan in the Safavid era, and the akhbārī vs uṣūlī debates on whether reason can derive laws). Sunni thought ranged from the highly rationalist (Falāsifa like Ibn Sina who, though not a Sunni theologian, influenced intellectual circles) to the staunch anti-rationalist (Ibn Hanbal or later Wahhabi scholars). But the middle Sunni approach (Ash‘ari-Maturidi) always privileged revealed knowledge: reason’s role is to understand revelation, not to independently create doctrine. Isma‘ili Shi‘ism took a unique route – they deeply engaged Neoplatonic philosophy and saw the Imam as unlocking truths that might remain hidden in the literal text, effectively giving a guided reason (the Imam’s intellect) a big role in grasping esoteric knowledge.

6. The “Essence of Islam” concept: Interestingly, if you ask a Sunni vs a Shi‘a vs a Mu‘tazili “what are the essential beliefs of Islam?”, the overlap is huge (belief in God, prophets, etc.), but a Mu‘tazili-influenced answer will put justice and free will at the forefront of defining God’s religion (they defined Islam as “the religion of tawhīd and ʿadl”). A Sunni answer will put tawhīd at the absolute center, with justice as an important value but ultimately an attribute of God’s that we trust without defining it on our terms. A Twelver Shi‘i answer will enumerate tawhīd, ʿadl, nubuwwah, imāmah, maʿād (Oneness, Justice, Prophethood, Imamate, Resurrection) as the five essentials – the inclusion of Imamate is a stark difference, making the leadership of the Prophet’s family part of the “essence” of the faith to a Shi‘a. Sunnis do not include any specific political or lineage-based leadership in their creed; the closest equivalent might be the concept of Ahl al-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘ah itself, indicating the community consensus as a guiding concept rather than a specific imam.

7. Contemporary Relations: In modern times, Sunni and Shi‘a theologians have engaged in more dialogue, often emphasizing common beliefs (monotheism, prophethood, Qur’an, prayer, etc.) while acknowledging the classical differences. Mu‘tazilism as an independent school faded by the 13th century, but its ideas live on subtly in both Shi‘a thought and in some modernist Sunni trends that emphasize rational ethics. For instance, questions of human rights and ethics in Islam today sometimes revive the old debate: is something good because God commanded it (Ash‘ari view), or did God command it because it is good (Mu‘tazili view)? Sunni orthodoxy leans to the former, but modern Muslim philosophers sometimes, knowingly or not, echo Mu‘tazilite reasoning when arguing for universal moral values in line with Islam.

In sum, Sunni theology shares with Shi‘a the great pillars of Islamic belief but diverges on points like the scope of religious authority (Imamate vs. Caliphal community), the use of pure reason vs. text, and the philosophical framing of doctrines like justice and free will. Mu‘tazilite thought, while historically not Sunni, played an important role in sharpening Sunni doctrines through debate. The essence of Islam “according to Sunni tradition” thus emerges as a creed focused on God’s oneness and sovereignty, the guidance of prophecy, and a trust in divine wisdom, whereas Mu‘tazila centered it on God’s justice and human responsibility, and Shi‘a added devotion to the Prophet’s family as a theological cornerstone. Despite differences, all agree that Islam calls to worship of the one God, righteousness, and accountability in the hereafter – these form the broad essence that any Muslim would recognize.

Sufism in Sunni Islam: Divine Love and Spiritual Realization

Beyond formal theology, the essence of Islam has an experiential and spiritual dimension deeply explored by Sufism – the mystical tradition within Islam. Sufism (Taṣawwuf) is often described as the inner heart of the religion, concerned with purification of the soul (tazkiyah) and direct knowledge (ma‘rifah) of God through love. Many of the greatest Sufi masters and poets were Sunni Muslims who adhered to Sunni creed and law outwardly, while emphasizing the ihsān (spiritual excellence) dimension of the faith. As the Prophet said in a famous hadith, “Ihsan is to worship Allah as if you see Him, and if you do not see Him, know that He sees you.” Sufis strive to achieve this state of constant God-consciousness.

Divine Love (Mahabba) as Central: Sufis interpret the essence of Islam as ultimately a matter of the heart’s relationship with the Divine. They often highlight a sacred tradition (hadith qudsi) where God says, “I was a Hidden Treasure and loved to be known, so I created creation in order to be known.” While not a Quranic verse, this saying captures a Sufi understanding: that love is the reason for creation – God’s love overflowed into the creation of the world, and the purpose of human life is to know and love God in return. The Qur’an indeed speaks of Allah’s love (ḥubb) and mercy, and of certain people He loves (those who do good, who repent, etc.). Sufis take these references and develop a theology of love. For example, the name al-Wadūd (The All-Loving) appears in the Qur’an (11:90, 85:14), and Sufis reflect on it as a key to understanding God’s interaction with the world. They see tawhīd not only as an abstract monotheism but as “unity with the Beloved” – meaning a oneness of purpose and devotion, where the seeker sees all of reality as a manifestation of the one True Beloved, Allah​ mdpi.com. It is crucial to note that Sufis do not mean they become God or that creation is God (pantheism is generally rejected); rather, God is the only true reality (al-Ḥaqq), and one must erase the ego-self to let God’s light fill one’s heart (a concept known as fanā’ – annihilation in God).

Spiritual Practices and Realization: Within Sunni Sufism, one finds practices like dhikr (remembrance of God by repeating His names or phrases like “lā ilāha illā Allāh”), muraqabah (meditation/contemplation), and sama‘ (listening to spiritual poetry or music) used as tools to deepen love and awareness of God. The aim is an experiential knowledge of God’s presence (ihsan) complementing the legalistic practice of Islam. Far from seeking to undermine the Shariah, mainstream Sufis insist that the outward duties (prayer, fasting, charity, etc.) are to be meticulously observed as the body of religion, while the Sufi path is its soul. A famous metaphor: “Shariah is like a candle, Tariqah (the Sufi path) is the light it gives, and Haqiqah (the Truth) is the moon that shines when the candle has lit it. All are needed.” Another common Sufi saying: “The Sufi is one who has submitted to God in Islam (islām), affirmed true faith (īmān), and then beautified their faith with virtue (iḥsān).” In essence, Sufism contends that the ultimate essence of Islam is inner surrender – not only performing rituals, but doing so with a heart inflamed by love of God.

Interpretation of Tawhid: Sufis often expand the understanding of tawhīd. In Islamic mysticism, tawhid is not just a statement that “God is one” but a reality to be realized in the soul. Sufi literature speaks of “Wahdat al-Wujūd” (Unity of Existence) or “Wahdat al-Shuhūd” (Unity of Witnessing). Ibn al-‘Arabi (d. 1240), a great Sufi philosopher, taught that all existence is ultimately one because everything is a manifestation of God’s attributes – “There is no absolute reality but God; everything else is real only through Him.”. This is a complex idea often misunderstood. It doesn’t negate the Creator-creation distinction, but emphasizes God’s immanence and the idea that truly, only God has independent existence, while we exist by His sustaining command at every moment. Many later Sunni scholars clarified Ibn al-‘Arabi’s concept to ensure it stays within the bounds of orthodoxy (some adopted it, some offered alternative formulae like wahdat al-shuhūd which focuses on the unity in the seeker’s perception rather than actual being). Regardless of these theosophical debates, the practical Sufi approach to tawhid is captured by the saying of Rābi‘a al-‘Adawiyya (a famous woman saint of Basra, d. 801): “O God, if I worship You for fear of Hell, burn me in Hell; if I worship You for hope of Paradise, exclude me from it; but if I worship You for Your Own sake, do not withhold from me Your everlasting Beauty.” This illustrates pure tawhid in devotion – seeking God not as a means to an end, but as the end itself.

Divine Love in Poetry: Sufi poets like Jalāluddīn Rumi and Hafez used the imagery of human love to convey divine love. Rumi, a 13th-century Persian Sufi, wrote thousands of verses about the soul’s longing for God. One line: “O Lovers! The religion of love is such that… the lover (of God) and the Beloved (God) are one and the same.” Rumi is not saying the human is literally God, but expressing the mystical union in love – when one is in true love with the Divine, one’s will is extinguished in God’s will, achieving a kind of unity of purpose. Rumi’s and Hafez’s poetry introduced “ideas of transcendent love, unity with God, and seeking deeper understanding” to broad audiences. These themes, while poetic, reflect Quranic concepts like “Allah loves them and they love Him” (Qur’an 5:54) and “My Mercy encompasses all things” (7:156). Sufis often interpret verses about paradise’s delights as metaphors – the real paradise for them is closeness to God, the beatific vision (seeing God in the Hereafter, which Sunni creed affirms for the blessed).

Sufism and Orthodox Sunni Islam: Historically, most Sunni communities embraced Sufism to varying degrees. Many Sunni scholars were Sufis or sympathetic to Sufism (examples: Imām al-Ghazālī, who after mastering law and theology, turned to Sufism and wrote Revival of the Religious Sciences; the Ash‘ari scholar Fakhr al-Din al-Razi and many others were initiated into Sufi orders). Al-Ghazālī’s experience is telling: he found that philosophical knowledge alone did not grant him yaqīn (certainty) and peace of heart. He concluded that the Sufi path, with its emphasis on inner transformation, was superior to philosophy in realizing the truths of Islam. He wrote, “The theologians seek to know God while remaining satisfied with words; the Sufis seek to know God by experiencing His presence.” Of course, Ghazālī still valued theology to delineate correct belief, but he argued it must be combined with purification of the heart. After Ghazālī, Sufism became widely integrated into Sunni practice – by the 13th–16th centuries, Sufi orders (Tariqas) like the Qadiriyya, Naqshbandiyya, Chishtiyya, Shadhiliyya, etc., spread and became part of the social fabric of Muslim lands. They taught that shari‘ah (Islamic law) and haqiqah (inner truth) are two sides of the same coin, bridged by tariqah (the method/path of spiritual discipline).

That said, Sufism also had detractors. Certain ultra-traditionalist or reformist currents in Sunni Islam (ancient Hanbali literalists, and more recently the Salafi/Wahhabi movement) criticized some Sufi practices as un-Islamic innovations or even heretical (especially when seeing ignorant devotees worship at shrines or extremist dervishes dancing in ways they deemed irreverent). These critics see the essence of Islam as strict monotheism and obedience, and fear that some mystical expressions blur the Creator-creature distinction or lead to superstition. Mainstream Sunni view, however, has generally recognized moderate, sober Sufism as a valid and valuable part of the religion. The proof of this is figures like Imam Nawawi, Imam Suyuti, Shah Waliullah, etc., who were respected Sunni scholars and also part of Sufi tradition. They argued that when properly grounded in the Qur’an and Sunnah, Sufism is nothing other than deep Īmān and Iḥsān.

Sufi contribution to understanding Islam’s essence: Sufis often distill the religion to three levels: Islām (submission through practice), Īmān (faith through understanding), and Iḥsān (excellence through God-consciousness). All three together constitute the complete dīn (religion). In their view, Sunni orthodoxy sometimes focused heavily on correct practice and correct belief, whereas Sufism emphasizes correct state of heart. For example, while a theologian might enumerate God’s 99 names and attributes, a Sufi wants to experience qualities like God’s mercy or majesty in their own soul (through awe, trust, love, etc.). Thus, Sufism doesn’t negate Sunni theology; it internalizes it. A verse often quoted by Sufis is “Wherever you turn, there is the Face of Allah” (Qur’an 2:115) – meaning God’s presence is pervasive. They interpret Islam as a journey of turning the heart toward that “Face” in every moment, which is the highest realization of tawhīd.

Practically, Sufism within Sunnism encourages virtues like sincere repentance (tawba), reliance on God (tawakkul), love (maḥabba), contentment (riḍā), and constant remembrance. It also often involves having a spiritual guide (shaykh) who is part of a lineage going back to the Prophet, to help one traverse the pitfalls of the ego. Many of these ideas are supported by Quranic stories and Prophetic traditions – for example, the story of Moses meeting Khidr (Qur’an 18:65-82) is often cited as an example of esoteric wisdom and trust in God’s plan beyond surface appearances (Khidr’s actions seemed puzzling or wrong to Moses until the inner purpose was revealed – a lesson in tasawwuf about patience and insight).

Divine Love and the Prophet: Sufis also emphasize love of the Prophet Muhammad as the perfect human who attained the closest proximity to God. Loving the Prophet (following him not just outwardly but with deep veneration) is seen as the path to loving God, per the Quranic verse: “Say (O Muhammad): If you love Allah, follow me, and Allah will love you” (3:31). The Prophet’s night journey (Mi‘raj) to the heavens is taken in Sufi symbolism as the prototype of the soul’s ascent to God. They celebrate the Prophet’s qualities with poetry (e.g., the Burda ode) and gatherings (Mawlid) – out of love, which they argue is the spirit of the Sunna.

In contemporary times, Sufism’s message of divine love and human fraternity has had global appeal. Sufi poetry and music (qawwālī, dervish whirling, etc.) continue to inspire, and Sufi-oriented scholars present Islam in a spiritually rich manner that resonates beyond formal rituals. Some modern Sunni movements that focus on spirituality, like the Tablighi Jamaat (though not classical Sufis, they emphasize dhikr and tawakkul) or various neo-Sufi circles in the West, show that the hunger for the spiritual essence is very much alive.

To conclude the Sufism section: Within Sunni Islam, Sufism interprets the essence of Islam as ubudiyyah (servitude to God) driven by intense mahabba (love) and ma‘rifa (gnosis). It reminds that beyond all theology and law, the heart’s transformation is the ultimate goal. As Rumi beautifully said, “Your task is not to seek for love, but merely to seek and find all the barriers within yourself that you have built against it.” By removing those barriers (pride, greed, worldly attachment), the light of tawhīd shines in the heart – man realizes he is nothing, God is all. This realization, in Sufi understanding, is Islam’s deepest truth. It does not contradict Sunni theology; rather, it vivifies it, much as a soul gives life to a body. Sunni tradition at its best integrates all these layers – law, theology, and spirituality – providing a holistic understanding of Islam’s essence.

Conclusion

Sunni Islam’s theological and philosophical landscape is vast yet centered on a few simple truths: God is One, Muhammad is His Messenger, and there is a moral, accountable purpose to creation. From the Qur’anic foundations to the scholastic debates of Ash‘aris, Maturidis, and others, and further into the mystical insights of Sufis, we see a continuous effort to understand and live by these truths. The core theological principles – tawhīd, prophecy, divine justice, and eschatology – are firmly rooted in the Quran and have been elaborated in Sunni creed without losing their Quranic spirit. The theological schools provided intellectual depth, while the balance of reason and revelation ensured faith stayed both intelligible and faithful to its divine source. Sunni discourse on free will and predestination sought to uphold God’s power and human responsibility, reflecting the Qur’an’s own balance. Comparative glimpses of Shi‘a and Mu‘tazilite views highlighted Sunni distinctions, yet also underscored a shared heritage of Islamic monotheism and reverence for justice and knowledge. Sufism added the dimension of heart-centered understanding, teaching that the essence of Islam is not just to profess the oneness of God conceptually, but to realize it in one’s being through love and remembrance.

In contemporary times, these discussions continue in new forms, but Sunni Islam still draws on its rich classical heritage. Modern Sunni scholars might use new philosophical terms or address new ethical questions, but the foundations remain those laid down in the Qur’an and by the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ. The essence of Islam, as Sunnis perceive it, is ultimately a harmonious synergy of faith, reason, and spirituality – believing in One God, using one’s intellect to understand and apply His guidance, and purifying one’s heart to connect with Him. This integrated approach has allowed Sunni Islam to endure and thrive across diverse cultures and eras, always returning to the Quranic bedrock: “We believe in Allah and what has been revealed to us… and to Him we submit” (Qur’an 3:84). Such submission (islām) is not seen as a passive state, but an active engagement of mind and soul with the Divine – the very heart of Islam’s theology and lived philosophy.

Sources:

• Quranic verses and classical Hadith literature for foundational concepts (as referenced in context).
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Arabic and Islamic Philosophy of Religion (2023) for historical development of kalām and philosophy.
• Britannica and Wikipedia summaries on Mu‘tazilism for contrasts in doctrine.
• Wikipedia – Schools of Islamic theology for overview of Ash‘ari, Maturidi, Athari positions and Sunni consensus on their orthodoxy ​en.wikipedia.org.
• Islamic theology introductory texts (Kharchoufa, 2024) for Sunni belief essentials and Sufi influences.
• Encyclopaedia Iranica – “Free Will” for Shi‘i Imami perspective on free will vs. predestination.
• Modern scholarly articles (Nasrin Rouzati, Religions 2020) for Sufi interpretation of tawhid and divine love ​mdpi.com.