Epigraph:

بَدِيعُ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ ۖ وَإِذَا قَضَىٰ أَمْرًا فَإِنَّمَا يَقُولُ لَهُ كُن فَيَكُونُ

He is the Originator of the heavens and the earth, and when He decrees something, He says only, ‘Be,’ and it is. (Al Quran 2:117)

Have they been created from nothing, or are they their own creators? Have they created the heavens and the earth? In truth they put no faith in anything. (Al Quran 52:35-36)

Written and collected by Zia H Shah MD, Chief Editor of the Muslim Times

When engaging with atheists, theists often present several philosophical arguments to support the existence of God. These arguments aim to provide rational foundations for belief in a deity. The one most often presented is the cosmological argument. This argument posits that everything that exists has a cause, and because the universe exists, it must have a cause external to itself—identified as God.

The cosmological argument is a classical philosophical proposition that seeks to demonstrate the existence of God through the observation of the universe’s existence and causation. Its historical development spans various cultures and eras, reflecting humanity’s enduring quest to understand the origins of existence.

Before we go into its history, starting with Greek philosophers, the Bible, the Quran, early Muslim theologians, medieval Christian theologians, and modern Christian philosophers, let me briefly present the modern presentation of the argument.

One of the most prominent modern formulations is the Kalam Cosmological Argument, which has been extensively developed by philosopher William Lane Craig. This argument is structured as follows:

1. Premise 1: Everything that begins to exist has a cause.
2. Premise 2: The universe began to exist.
3. Conclusion: Therefore, the universe has a cause.

Craig supports the first premise by asserting that it is intuitively and universally observed that entities do not come into existence without a cause. Regarding the second premise, he presents both philosophical arguments (such as the impossibility of an actual infinite series of past events) and scientific evidence (including the Big Bang theory) to substantiate the universe’s beginning. From these premises, Craig concludes that the universe’s cause must be an uncaused, personal Creator who is beginningless, changeless, immaterial, timeless, spaceless, and enormously powerful.

Modern proponents of the cosmological argument often engage with contemporary scientific theories to bolster their claims. For instance, the standard Big Bang cosmology, which describes the universe’s expansion from a highly dense and hot initial state, is cited as evidence for the universe having a temporal beginning. Additionally, the Borde-Guth-Vilenkin theorem, which implies that any universe expanding on average throughout its history cannot be infinite in the past but must have a past spacetime boundary, is used to support the argument’s second premise.

Incidentally, the cosmological argument is for the eternal God of the Abrahamic faiths and does nothing for the doctrine of the Trinity, which is not mentioned at all in the Old Testament.

Ancient Philosophical Roots

The origins of the cosmological argument can be traced back to ancient Greek philosophy. Plato, in his dialogue Timaeus, pondered whether the cosmos had always existed or had a beginning, suggesting the necessity of a divine craftsman to account for its order and existence. Aristotle further developed this line of thought with his concept of the “Unmoved Mover,” proposing that all motion in the universe must originate from a primary source that itself remains unmoved.

Biblical Mention of the Cosmological Argument

The Bible begins with a profound declaration of God’s role as the Creator:

“In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.” — Genesis 1:1

This verse establishes the foundational belief that the universe had a definitive beginning, brought into existence by God. This aligns with the cosmological argument’s premise that the universe is not eternal and requires an initial cause.

The Apostle Paul further emphasizes that the created world reveals God’s attributes:

“For his invisible attributes, namely, his eternal power and divine nature, have been clearly perceived, ever since the creation of the world, in the things that have been made. So they are without excuse.” — Romans 1:20

Here, Paul asserts that the existence and nature of the universe serve as clear evidence of God’s power and divinity, leaving humanity without excuse for unbelief.

The Comprehensive Case for the Cosmological Argument in the Holy Quran

The Quran is not a manual of logic but rather a scripture to inspire humanity on a journey toward their Creator, so it does not present a bulletproof argument every time it discusses the cosmological argument. Sometimes, it uses a poetic style for emotional inspiration, and at other times, it emphasizes one or the other premise of the argument to bolster the cumulative case.

The Quran has approximately 6600 verses, with a thousand talking about nature and natural phenomena and encouraging the believers to study them to find pearls of wisdom and signs and miracles in them. These, with a little poetic license, become a part of the cosmological argument. I intend to share a few examples in this article today. All 1000 or more of them have been tabulated in a separate article: Cataloging 750 verses of the Holy Quran inspiring believers to study nature.

The very first chapter of the Quran starts with mentioning that God is the Sustainer of all the worlds: “Praise belongs to God, Lord and Sustainer of all the Worlds.” (1:2)

The second chapter has a verse that talks about the attribute of Allah, as the Originator of everything, Who created from nothing whatsoever. This verse has been quoted as an epigraph, in the beginning of this article:

بَدِيعُ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ ۖ وَإِذَا قَضَىٰ أَمْرًا فَإِنَّمَا يَقُولُ لَهُ كُن فَيَكُونُ

He is the Originator of the heavens and the earth, and when He decrees something, He says only, ‘Be,’ and it is. (Al Quran 2:117)

Again in the second chapter we read:

Indeed, in the creation of the heavens and the earth and in the alternation of night and day, and in the ships which sail in the sea with that which profits men, and in the water which Allah sends down from the sky and quickens therewith the earth after its death and scatters therein all kinds of beasts, and in the change of the winds, and the clouds pressed into service between the heaven and the earth — are indeed Signs for the people who understand. (2:164)

Allah teaches a spiritual value from the fact that He is the Creator of our universe, in the very next verse:

Even so, there are some who choose to worship others besides God as rivals to Him, loving them with the love due to God, but the believers have greater love for God. (2:165)

In the third chapter, the Holy Quran inspires the believers in no uncertain terms to study nature and says that the wisest among them not only study nature but draw broader moral and spiritual inferences from their study:

In the creation of the heavens and the earth and in the alternation of the night and the day, there are indeed Signs for men of understanding: those who remember Allah while standing, sitting, and lying on their sides and ponder over the creation of the heavens and the earth: ‘Our Lord, You have not created this in vain; nay, Holy are You; save us, then, from the punishment of the Fire.

‘Our Lord, whomsoever You cause to enter the Fire, him has You surely disgraced. And the wrongdoers shall have no helpers.’ (3:190-192)

Almost every Surah of the Quran presents Monotheism in one metaphor or the other, often presenting God as the Creator and arguing from the tangible to the intangible. Several Surahs have long passages presenting God the Creator to humanity. Here are the passages from the thirteenth Surah of the Quran, Al Raad:

These are the signs of the Scripture. What your Lord has sent down to you [Prophet] is the truth, yet most people do not believe. It is God who raised up the heavens with no visible supports and then established Himself on the throne; He has subjected the sun and the moon each to pursue its course for an appointed time; He regulates all things, and makes the revelations clear so that you may be certain of meeting your Lord; it is He who spread out the earth, placed firm mountains and rivers on it, and made two of every kind of fruit; He draws the veil of night over the day. There truly are signs in this for people who reflect. There are, in the land, neighboring plots, gardens of vineyards, cornfields, palm trees in clusters or otherwise, all watered with the same water, yet We make some of them taste better than others: there truly are signs in this for people who reason.

…

It is He who shows you the lightning, inspiring fear and hope; He builds up the clouds heavy with rain; the thunder sounds His praises, as do the angels in awe of Him; He sends thunderbolts to strike whoever He will. Yet still they dispute about God– He has mighty plans. The only true prayer is to Him: those they pray to besides Him give them no answer any more than water reaches the mouth of someone who simply stretches out his hands for it– it cannot do so: the prayers of the disbelievers are all in vain. All that are in heaven and earth submit b to God alone, willingly or unwillingly, as do their shadows in the mornings and in the evenings.

Say [Prophet], ‘Who is Lord of the heavens and the earth?’ Say, ‘God.’ Say, ‘Why do you take protectors other than Him, who can neither benefit nor harm even themselves?’ Say, ‘Are the blind equal to those who can see? And are the depths of darkness equal to the light?’ Have the partners they assign to God created anything like His creation so that their creation is indistinguishable from His? Say, ‘God is the Creator of all things: He is the One, the All Compelling.’

He sends water from the sky that fills riverbeds to overflowing, each according to its measure. The stream carries on its surface a growing layer of froth, like the froth that appears when people melt metals in the fire to make ornaments and tools: in this way God illustrates truth and falsehood– the froth disappears, but what is of benefit to man stays behind– this is how God makes illustrations. (13:1-5 and 12-17)

In chapter 22 or Surah Hajj the Quran forcefully presents the cosmological argument by combining it with a challenge:

People, here is an illustration, so listen carefully: those you call on beside God could not, even if they combined all their forces, create a fly, and if a fly took something away from them, they would not be able to retrieve it. How feeble are the petitioners and how feeble are those they petition. (22:73)

In the Quran the cosmological argument is woven with the rest of its theology.

The two fundamental beliefs of Islam are the One God or Monotheism and our accountability to Him in the Afterlife. These two beliefs are mentioned in almost every Surah of the holy Quran except some of the very short chapters or Surahs. The Quran establishes Monotheism through the cosmological argument and a few other arguments.

What is a fundamental beauty of the Quran is that it does not simply profess its teachings but elaborates them with reason and logic. The Quran is filled with various arguments for the One God of the Abrahamic faiths. Similarly, when it comes to the Afterlife the holy Quran does not simply mention it as an axiom of fundamental belief set but also offers proofs for its veracity and truth.

The main argument that the Quran offers for Afterlife is argument from God’s creativity or His First Creation. It is perhaps best enunciated in the end of Surah Yasin:

Can man not see that We created him from a drop of fluid? Yet–– lo and behold!–– he disputes openly, producing arguments against Us, forgetting his own creation. He says, ‘Who can give life back to bones after they have decayed?’ Say, ‘He who created them in the first place will give them life again: He has full knowledge of every act of creation. It is He who produces fire for you out of the green tree–– lo and behold!–– and from this you kindle fire. Is He who created the heavens and earth not able to create the likes of these people? Of course He is! He is the All Knowing Creator: when He wills something to be, His way is to say, ‘Be’–– and it is! So glory be to Him in whose Hand lies control over all things. It is to Him that you will all be brought back.’ (36:77-83)

It is then repeated in numerous other Surahs with different angles or perspectives to drive the point home. In Surah Bani Israel we read:

They also say, ‘What? When we are turned to bones and dust, shall we really be raised up in a new act of creation?’ Say, ‘[Yes] even if you were [as hard as] stone, or iron, or any other substance you think hard to bring to life.’ Then they will say, ‘Who will bring us back?’ Say, ‘The One who created you the first time.’ Then they will shake their heads at you and say, ‘When will that be?’ Say, ‘It may well be very soon: it will be the Day when He calls you, and you answer by praising Him, and you think you have stayed [on earth] only a little while.’ (17:49-52)

And again in Surah Bani Israel we read:

‘What? When we are turned to bones and dust, how can we be raised in a new act of creation?’ Do they not see that God, who created the heavens and earth, can create the likes of them [anew]? He has ordained a time for them–– there is no doubt about that–– but the evildoers refuse everything except disbelief. (17:98-99)

In highlighting Monotheism and the Afterlife from Surah Rome, let me quote from a long passage where Allah highlights His creativity, and I am quoting from the translation by Muhammad Abdel Haleem, from Oxford University:

So celebrate God’s glory in the evening, in the morning – praise is due to Him in the heavens and the earth – in the late afternoon, and at midday. He brings the living out of the dead and the dead out of the living. He gives life to the earth after death, and you will be brought out in the same way. One of His signs is that He created you from dust and – lo and behold! – you became human and scattered far and wide. Another of His signs is that He created spouses from among yourselves for you to live with in tranquility: He ordained love and kindness between you. There truly are signs in this for those who reflect. Another of His signs is the creation of the heavens and earth, and the diversity of your languages and colors. There truly are signs in this for those who know. Among His signs are your sleep, by night and by day, and your seeking His bounty. There truly are signs in this for those who can hear. Among His signs, too, are that He shows you the lightning that terrifies and inspires hope; that He sends water down from the sky to restore the earth to life after death. There truly are signs in this for those who use their reason. (Al Quran 30:17-24)

Allah then connects His creativity to the Afterlife:

Among His signs, too, is the fact that the heavens and the earth stand firm by His command. In the end, you will all emerge when He calls you from the earth. Everyone in the heavens and earth belongs to Him, and all are obedient to Him. He is the One who originates creation and will do it again – this is even easier for Him. He is above all comparison in the heavens and earth; He is the Almighty, the All Wise. (Al Quran 30:25-26)

The theme is repeated a little later in the Surah with slightly different metaphors and emphasis:

Another of His signs is that He sends out the winds bearing good news, giving you a taste of His grace, making the ships sail at His command, enabling you to [journey in] search of His bounty so that you may be grateful. Before you [Muhammad], We sent messengers, each to their own people: they brought them clear proofs and then We punished the evildoers. We make it Our duty to help the believers. It is God who sends out the winds; they stir up the clouds; He spreads them over the skies as He pleases; He makes them break up and you see the rain falling from them. See how they rejoice when He makes it fall upon whichever of His servants He wishes, though before it is sent they may have lost all hope. Look, then, at the imprints of God’s mercy, how He restores the earth to life after death: this same God is the one who will return people to life after death–– He has power over all things. (Al Quran 30:46-50)

The holy Quran does not indulge in pointless repetition. There is a method to it and a profound purpose:

In this Quran, We have put forward all kinds of metaphors and illustration for people, so that they may take heed–– an Arabic Quran free from any distortion–– so that people may be mindful. (Al Quran 39:27-28)

And:

If We had sent this Quran down to a mountain, you [Prophet] would have seen it humbled and split apart in its awe of God: We offer people such metaphors and illustrations so that they may reflect. (Al Quran 59:21)

Almost every Surah of the Quran presents Monotheism in one metaphor or the other, often presenting God as the Creator and arguing from the tangible to the intangible. In each instance, the Quran brings out a slightly different emphasis or a new point and argument. In Surah Luqman, Allah claims the whole universe as His creation and emphasizes that other make belief gods or idols, including Jesus Christ, have no creative power. Likewise, atheists cannot create a universe from merely laws of nature, mathematics or whatever they may imagine:

خَلَقَ السَّمَاوَاتِ بِغَيْرِ عَمَدٍ تَرَوْنَهَا ۖ وَأَلْقَىٰ فِي الْأَرْضِ رَوَاسِيَ أَن تَمِيدَ بِكُمْ وَبَثَّ فِيهَا مِن كُلِّ دَابَّةٍ ۚ وَأَنزَلْنَا مِنَ السَّمَاءِ مَاءً فَأَنبَتْنَا فِيهَا مِن كُلِّ زَوْجٍ كَرِيمٍ

هَٰذَا خَلْقُ اللَّهِ فَأَرُونِي مَاذَا خَلَقَ الَّذِينَ مِن دُونِهِ ۚ بَلِ الظَّالِمُونَ فِي ضَلَالٍ مُّبِينٍ

He created the heavens without any visible support, and He placed firm mountains on the earth––in case it should shake under you––and He spread all kinds of animals around it. We sent down water from the sky, with which We made every kind of good plant grow on earth: all this is God’s creation. Now, show Me what your other gods have created. No, the disbelievers are clearly astray. (31:10-11)

In Surah Al Tur, the attribute of the Originator of Allah is emphasized, and several other mentions of this can be cataloged in the Quran. These verses are also quoted as an epigraph in the beginning of this article:

Have they been created from nothing, or are they their own creators? Have they created the heavens and the earth? In truth they put no faith in anything. (Al Quran 52:35-36)

In the fifty-fifth chapter, Surah Al Rehman, there are 78 verses that mention different aspects of creation in the universe and on our planet Earth, frequently repeating the refrain: Which, then, of your Lord’s blessings do you both (the leaders and common men) deny?

There is a lot more to be said from the Quran about the cosmological argument, but in the interest of brevity I will stop here.

Contributions of early Muslim theologians

The study of the Quran triggered the imagination and intellect of the Muslims in the early centuries.

During the Islamic Golden Age, philosophers such as Avicenna, Al-Kindi and Al-Ghazali advanced the cosmological argument. Al-Kindi introduced the idea that the universe must have a finite past and, therefore, a cause for its beginning. Al-Ghazali further refined this perspective, arguing against the possibility of an actual infinite regress of events, thereby supporting the notion of a first cause. These contributions laid the groundwork for what is now known as the Kalām cosmological argument.

Medieval Christian Philosophy

In medieval Europe, Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274) presented the cosmological argument in his seminal work, Summa Theologica. Aquinas articulated the “Five Ways” to demonstrate God’s existence, with the first three—motion, causation, and contingency—forming variations of the cosmological argument. He posited that the observable chain of causes and effects in the world necessitates a first cause, which he identified as God.

Aquinas adapted and enhanced the argument he found in his reading of Aristotle, Avicenna (the Proof of the Truthful) and Maimonides to formulate one of the most influential versions of the cosmological argument. His conception of the first cause was the idea that the universe must be caused by something that is itself uncaused, which he claimed is ‘that which we call God’:

In the world of sense we find there is an order of efficient causes. There is no case known (neither is it, indeed, possible) in which a thing is found to be the efficient cause of itself; for so it would be prior to itself, which is impossible. Now in efficient causes it is not possible to go on to infinity, because in all efficient causes following in order, the first is the cause of the intermediate cause, and the intermediate is the cause of the ultimate cause, whether the intermediate cause be several, or only one. Now to take away the cause is to take away the effect. Therefore, if there be no first cause among efficient causes, there will be no ultimate, nor any intermediate cause. But if in efficient causes it is possible to go on to infinity, there will be no first efficient cause, neither will there be an ultimate effect, nor any intermediate efficient causes; all of which is plainly false. Therefore it is necessary to admit a first efficient cause, to which everyone gives the name of God.

Modern Developments

The cosmological argument continues to be a subject of philosophical discourse. Contemporary proponents, such as William Lane Craig, have revitalized the Kalām cosmological argument, integrating modern scientific insights from cosmology and physics to argue for the universe’s finite past and the necessity of a transcendent cause. Critics, however, challenge the argument on various grounds, including the nature of causality and the possibility of an infinite regress.

In modern physics discussions, when scientists claim that quantum particles can come into existence without cause, they are taking the preexisting quantum fields and laws of physics for granted.

Philosophically, the argument delves into the nature of causality, time, and the concept of infinity. Discussions often revolve around whether an actual infinite can exist in reality or merely as a mathematical concept. Hilbert’s paradox of the Grand Hotel is frequently employed to illustrate the absurdities that can arise from the existence of an actual infinite, thereby supporting the notion that the past must be finite.

Conclusion

The cosmological argument’s rich history reflects humanity’s persistent endeavor to comprehend the existence of the universe. From ancient Greek philosophy through Islamic and Christian scholasticism to modern philosophical debates, it remains a central topic in the philosophy of religion, inviting ongoing exploration and discussion.

The Greek philosophersand the Bible presented this topic in nebulous terms at best. The Quran, however, presents a comprehensive case, which later was galvanized by Al Kindi, Avicenna, and Al Ghazali. Two centuries later, Thomas Aquinas picked up the Kalam cosmological argument, which William Lane Craig embellished in our present time. He has entered into numerous debates with atheists on this topic, available on YouTube.

For the believer, the study of the Quran by speaking not only to the mind but also to the heart, not only leads to philosophical sophistication but also embellishes his or her spiritual journey, always keeping the understanding unified without being compartmentalized.

The Quran is miraculous in its presentation of the cosmological argument, but some will defy it. It is not that the Quran is lacking in any way, rather:

In this Quran We have set every kind of illustration before people, yet if you [Prophet] brought them a miracle, the disbelievers would still say, ‘You [prophets] deal only in falsehood.’ In this way God seals the hearts of those who do not know, so be patient, for God’s promise is true: do not let those with no firm beliefs discourage you. (30:58-60)