Presented by Zia H Shah MD

Abstract

In Malaysia, Chinese Mahayana Buddhism is by far the largest Buddhist tradition, practiced predominantly by ethnic Chinese. This Chinese Mahayana tradition is characterized by devotional reverence for Buddha and Bodhisattvas (notably Amitābha Buddha and Guānyīn, the Bodhisattva of Compassion), elaborate temple rituals, and often a syncretic blending of Buddhism with Chinese folk religion and Daoism buddhistdoor.net nalanda.org.my. Unlike Theravāda Buddhism (common among Thailand and Sri Lankan communities) or the Vajrayāna (Tibetan) tradition, Chinese Mahayana Buddhism in Malaysia emphasizes the bodhisattva ideal (postponing final nirvāṇa to help all beings), extensive devotional practices (chanting, merit-making, festival celebrations), and a larger canon of scriptures (Mahayana sutras) mdpi.com buddhistdoor.net. This tradition’s rituals and art often reflect multiple Asian influences: for example, the Kek Lok Si temple in Penang features Chinese, Thai and Burmese architectural elements on a single pagoda nalanda.org.my, symbolizing Malaysia’s historical role as a crossroads of Buddhist cultures.

Despite theological differences, Malaysian Buddhists and Muslims share many common ethical and communal values. Both traditions emphasize compassion and mercy – in Islam embodied by the concept of raḥmah, in Buddhism by karuṇā – as foundational virtues tibet.net. Each faith teaches that moral conduct leads to spiritual benefit: for Buddhism this is refraining from harmful karma and cultivating loving-kindness, and for Islam it is obedience to God’s commands and caring for the needy. For instance, Buddhist teachings urge adherents to refrain from taking life or telling falsehoods as part of the Five Precepts mdpi.com, while Islam’s Five Pillars and broader Sharia likewise enjoin honesty, charity (zakat), and daily prayer to nurture God-consciousness mdpi.commdpi.com. Scholars note that Islam’s core values (“do no evil, promote goodness”) closely mirror Buddhism’s (“cease from evil, cultivate goodness”), highlighting a shared commitment to self-improvement and altruism mdpi.commdpi.com.

Ritually, both Buddhists and Muslims in Malaysia observe regular devotional practices. Malay Muslims pray five times daily facing Mecca, fast during Ramadan, and celebrate festivals like Hari Raya Aidilfitri as a community. Chinese Buddhists may chant sutras, make offerings, meditate, and gather for Vesak celebrations. Notably, Malaysia’s government has recognized Wesak (Vesak) as a national public holiday, just as Hari Raya and other Muslim festivals are observed nationwide, reflecting official respect for both faiths buddhistdoor.net. Culturally, this plural society sees significant overlap: neighborhoods often contain both mosques and Chinese temples, and Malaysians of different faiths commonly participate in each other’s festivals and charitable events. Educational efforts and interfaith dialogues (such as the Dalai Lama’s 2020 Malaysian discussion on compassion) reinforce that Muslim and Buddhist teachings can mutually inform a culture of harmony tibet.nettibet.net.

These shared threads are vital for interfaith understanding: by focusing on mutual values like compassion, honesty, and community service, Buddhists and Muslims can appreciate how their traditions both guide ethical living. Recognizing that both faiths seek a life of virtue – whether through the Eightfold Path or the Five Pillars – helps bridge doctrinal gaps. In Malaysia’s context of diversity, highlighting these commonalities builds social cohesion. This analysis underscores that Chinese Mahayana Buddhism’s distinctive ethos – its compassion-centered bodhisattva focus, ritual life, and community institutions – complements Islamic values of mercy and justice. Together, they form a basis for inter-religious respect, illustrating how Malaysia’s Buddhists and Muslims can learn from and support one another in striving toward peace and ethical livingtibet.netmdpi.com.

Predominant Buddhist Tradition in Malaysia

Malaysia’s second-largest religion is Buddhism (about 19–20% of the population)nalanda.org.myholidify.com. The vast majority of Malaysian Buddhists are ethnic Chinese, and Mahayana Buddhism (especially Chinese-style Mahayana) is the dominant branch. Mahayana Buddhism in Malaysia typically features devotional worship: temples are adorned with images of the Buddha and numerous Bodhisattvas (especially Guānyīn, the compassionate Bodhisattva)buddhistdoor.net. Many laypeople engage in chanting sutras, making merit by giving offerings at temples, and celebrating festivals like Wesak (the Buddha’s birthday) and Guan Yin’s birthday. Chinese-Malaysian temples often blend Buddhist practice with local customs: for instance, a Penang temple may enshrine not only Buddhist figures but also Taoist and folk deities (e.g. Mazu the sea goddess)buddhistdoor.net, reflecting the syncretic nature of Chinese Buddhism. Lay Buddhist associations (such as the Malaysian Buddhist Association) play a central role in community life and interface with government; for example, they successfully advocated making Vesak a public holidaybuddhistdoor.net.

In practice, Chinese Mahayana temples in Malaysia often serve a broad community: Chinese of different dialects and origins congregate together, using temples as neutral gathering spotsbuddhistdoor.netbuddhistdoor.net. Monastic life exists but is less emphasized than in Theravāda countries; many temples are primarily managed by lay devotees. Education about Buddhism (through free clinics, kindergartens, Dharma schools) is common, reflecting a “Humanistic Buddhism” concerned with societal welfarebuddhistdoor.netbuddhistdoor.net.

Chinese Mahayana Buddhism in Malaysia differs from other major Buddhist traditions in several ways:

• Scriptures and Theology: Chinese Mahayana relies on Mahayana sutras (e.g. the Lotus Sutra, Pure Land Sutras) and emphasizes the Bodhisattva ideal – aspiring to Buddhahood for the benefit of all beings. By contrast, Theravāda Buddhism (practiced by Malaysian Thais and Sri Lankans) relies on the Pāli Canon and stresses the Arhat path (personal liberation) and historical Buddha Śākyamuni alone. Vajrayāna (Tibetan) Buddhism, present only among small expatriate communities, includes Tantric deities and mantras, which are generally absent from Chinese Mahayana rituals.
• Philosophical Emphases: Mahayana doctrine (common in Chinese tradition) teaches concepts like śūnyatā (emptiness) and Buddha-nature, and often believes many Buddhas/ bodhisattvas exist concurrently. Theravāda emphasizes the Four Noble Truths and impermanence without the same emphasis on emptiness philosophy. Vajrayāna accepts Mahayana philosophy but adds Tantra (with subtle-body practices). In Malaysia, Chinese Buddhists typically do not practice Tibetan-style tantra, focusing instead on meditation or Pure Land chanting.
• Ritual Practices: Chinese Mahayana rituals include chanting sutras in Mandarin or other Chinese languages, lighting incense to multiple Buddhas/Bodhisattvas, and honoring ancestors and Daoist gods. Thai/Sri Lankan Theravāda rites involve chanting in Pāli or Sinhalese and often nighttime kathina robe-offerings. Chinese Mahayana also celebrates festivals like Qingming (ancestor day) and Lunar New Year with temple ceremonies, reflecting cultural fusion.
• Cultural Context: Chinese Mahayana Buddhism in Malaysia is heavily interwoven with Chinese culture (Chinese architecture, language, cuisine at temple festivals, etc.), whereas Theravāda temples (wats) follow Thai/Sri Lankan styles and rituals. However, Malaysian Buddhists often move fluidly between traditions; one study notes that Chinese Malaysians may attend a Thai temple’s festival or a Chinese temple’s ceremony without conflictmdpi.com.

In sum, the most common Buddhist sect in Malaysia is Chinese-style Mahayana Buddhism, characterized by its devotional, community-centered practice and syncretic Chinese cultural elementsnalanda.org.mybuddhistdoor.net. It differs from Theravāda in its expansive scripture canon and bodhisattva focus, and from Vajrayāna in its lack of Tantric ritual. These characteristics shape how Malaysian Buddhists live their faith and engage with others.

Major Buddhist Traditions: Mahāyāna vs. Theravāda vs. Vajrayāna

• Theravāda (Southern Buddhism): Practiced by Malaysian Thais, Sri Lankans, Burmese, and some Chinese converts, Theravāda Buddhism focuses on the Pāli Canon and the historical Buddha’s teachings. Monastic life is central; monks follow strict vinaya rules (e.g. eating only before noon) and meditate toward becoming an Arhat. Philosophically, Theravāda does not espouse the Bodhisattva ideal – enlightenment (nibbāna) is usually sought as personal liberation. Rituals are simpler: offerings are made to monks (almsgiving), and temples (wat) use Thai or Burmese stylistic architecture.
• Mahayāna (Greater Vehicle): This is the broad tradition that includes Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese forms. Malaysian Chinese Buddhism falls here. It teaches that all beings possess Buddha-nature and that enlightened beings (bodhisattvas) compassionately delay their final nirvāṇa to help others. The canon includes Mahayana sutras like the Lotus Sutra and Pure Land texts. Practice involves chanting, visualizations, and elaborate temple pujas. Temples in Malaysia are often called sì (寺) or témples, with multi-roof pagodas and rich iconography. Lay participation is high: many Chinese families make merit (offerings of food, gold, incense) regularly and sponsor temple events.
• Vajrayāna (Tantric or Tibetan Buddhism): Only a small minority of Malaysian Buddhists (Tibetan immigrants and converts) follow Vajrayāna. It shares Mahayana philosophy but adds esoteric practices (mantras, mandalas, deity yoga). Ritually, it uses colorful sand mandalas, ritual dances, and Tibetan chants. In Malaysia, Tibetan Buddhism has some urban centers (e.g. a Tibetan monastery in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah), but its influence is modest compared to Chinese and Theravāda traditions.

Key distinctions: Compared to Theravāda, Mahayana (Chinese) Buddhism in Malaysia is more lay-driven and syncretic, and emphasizes universal compassion (many Bodhisattvas) over individual liberation. Compared to Vajrayāna, Chinese Mahayana lacks tantric rites and often incorporates local deities. Essentially, Malaysian Chinese Mahayana Buddhism is the synthesis of classical Buddhist values with Chinese cultural practicesbuddhistdoor.netmdpi.com, while Theravāda remains closer to early Buddhist forms, and Vajrayāna adds a tantric layer.

Shared Beliefs and Practices between Chinese Mahāyāna Buddhism and Islam

Buddhism and Islam are often seen as very different faiths. However, in practice Malaysian Buddhists (mostly Chinese Mahayana) and Muslims share many fundamental values and ritual patterns. This common ground can be grouped as follows:

• Core Beliefs: Neither tradition explicitly worships many gods in daily practice. Chinese Mahayana Buddhism is technically non-theistic – it recognizes many celestial Buddhas and spirits (devas), but its central teaching is the impersonal dharma of karma and rebirthmdpi.com. Islam is strictly monotheistic (belief in one God, Allāh). Yet both stress a kind of cosmic justice: in Buddhism, ethical deeds create karmic results, while in Islam, God rewards or punishes on the Day of Judgment. One study notes: “Salient aspects of Islam [are] belief in One God… and the Day of Judgment… In contrast, Buddhism teaches about natural laws… and the cycle of rebirth”mdpi.com. Still, both insist that intentions matter: in Islam, the Prophet said actions are judged by intention; in Buddhism, the Buddha taught that wholesome intentions (goodwill, compassion) lead toward liberation. Scholars highlight that both faiths ultimately call for moral effort – self-improvement through avoiding evil and doing goodmdpi.commdpi.com. Notably, a comparative analysis found that the “first two core values of Islam and Buddhism are the same”: to do no evil (cease from evil) and to promote goodness (cultivate goodness)mdpi.com. In summary, while their metaphysical outlooks differ, both traditions view human life as an ethical journey, governed by the consequences of one’s actions (karma or divine judgment).
• Religious Practices: Malaysians of both faiths maintain regular devotional routines. Buddhists often engage in meditation and chanting, while Muslims pray five times daily (salah) and recite the Quran. Both use prayer beads (Buddhist malas and Islamic misbaha) to count mantras or dhikr. Regarding fasting, Muslims observe Ramadan with month-long daily fasts. While Buddhism has no obligation like Ramadan, Buddhist monastics follow a partial fast (no eating after noon) and devotees may fast on uposatha days (full-moon observances) and special occasions for merit. Both traditions encourage self-control through fasting. Pilgrimage is another parallel: Muslims must perform the Hajj to Mecca at least once; Buddhists honor pilgrimage sites like Bodh Gaya or Lumbini, and within Malaysia Buddhists make pilgrimage to holy temples such as Kek Lok Si on Wesak. Ritual purity is emphasized in both: Muslims perform wudu (ablutions) before prayer, while Buddhists often purify themselves by washing hands and feet before entering a temple and by observing moral precepts. Thus, daily discipline and ritual observance – prayer/meditation at set times, periodic fasting, and pilgrimage – are shared patterns that shape life for Malaysian Buddhists and Muslims alike.
• Ethical Principles: Compassion, honesty, and community welfare are central to both. Buddhism’s ethical framework is embodied in the Five Precepts for laypeople: refrain from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and intoxicantsmdpi.com. These precepts promote compassion and harmlessness (e.g. “lovingkindness” and non-violence)mdpi.com. Similarly, Islam’s Sharia and Prophet’s teachings insist on mercy, charity, and truth. The Quran repeatedly invokes God as Al-Raḥmān al-Raḥīm (“Most Gracious, Most Merciful”), and Muhammad was called raḥmatan lil-ʿālamīn (a mercy to the worlds) for his kindness to all beingstibet.net. Zakat (almsgiving) and zakāt al-fitr (charity at Eid) institutionalize generosity, while honesty is mandated in trade and daily life. A Malaysian dialogue emphasized that Islam’s concept of mercy (raḥmah) is comparable to Buddhism’s compassion (karuṇā)tibet.net. Both communities thus value helping the poor, ethical speech (no lying or slander), and forgiving others. For example, one Malaysian scholar notes that both religions expect followers to “cultivate good values or virtues: do good unto others and avoid acts that constitute evil”mdpi.com. In everyday life, Muslim and Buddhist Malaysians alike are taught to perform good deeds not only for personal merit or God’s favor but to benefit society and foster harmony.
• Cultural Overlap and Social Cohesion: In Malaysia’s multiethnic context, Buddhists and Muslims frequently interact as neighbors, colleagues, and even extended family. Shared social norms include respect for elders and teachers, importance of community gatherings, and emphasis on family responsibility. Many cities and villages contain both a mosque and a Buddhist temple nearby, illustrating peaceful coexistence. Nationally, major holidays of each religion are recognized by all: for instance, Wesak Day is a public holiday due to the Buddhist community’s contributionbuddhistdoor.net, just as Hari Raya Aidilfitri is celebrated by Malaysians of all backgrounds. Cross-participation is common: it is not unusual for Buddhists to give gift baskets of food to Muslim friends during Aidilfitri, or for Muslims to join Vesak processions out of respect for Buddhist colleagues. Educational institutions often teach about all major faiths; some Muslim clerics and Buddhist monks have held joint symposiums on ethics and compassion (e.g. the 2020 dialogue hosted by Malaysia’s Muslim Youth Movement and Buddhist Culture Centre)tibet.net. Civil society bodies like the Malaysian Consultative Council of Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Sikhism and Taoism promote interfaith understanding, often highlighting common values. Scholars observe that Malaysia’s pluralism has historically relied on a mutual willingness “for tolerance on matters of difference” and that building on shared values is keymdpi.comtibet.net.

By focusing on these common threads, Malaysians can deepen interfaith understanding. Both Mahayana Buddhism and Islam teach followers to transcend selfish desires and cultivate virtues. For example, the Buddhist practice of metta (loving-kindness meditation) and the Islamic concept of nafs al-mutmaʾinnah (the calm, God-conscious self) both aim to calm the mind and foster empathy. When Buddhists and Muslims recognize that their doctrines both enjoin love, truthfulness, and self-discipline, even amid theological differences, they create fertile ground for respect and cooperationtibet.netmdpi.com.

Epilogue: Fostering Mutual Respect

Malaysia’s remarkable tapestry of faiths offers hope for interreligious harmony. Historically, Malaysians have lived side by side with a spirit of neighborliness – as one scholar notes, “A source of wonder to foreigners… has always been provided by the unique blend of different races, cultures and religions in Malaysian society, living together side by side in harmony.”mdpi.com. Many older Malaysians remember how Buddhist, Christian, Hindu and Muslim communities once shared holidays and friendship across ethnic lines. This legacy endures: in Kampung and city, it is common to hear salams and see Vesak lanterns on the same street. The foundations of this peace are the shared human values both traditions preach – compassion, generosity, and respect for life – which inform Malaysian norms of courtesy and charity.

Indeed, Malaysia’s largest religious communities can draw strength from their ethical kinship. The Prophet Muhammad’s teaching that “God is merciful to those who are merciful” resonates with the Buddha’s message of karuṇā: both exhort believers to enact compassion. When Buddhists light a lantern in prayer for peace or Muslims feed the poor during Ramadan, they enact the same virtue of kindness. Recognizing this common moral purpose can transform dialogue: instead of seeing only differences, community leaders and citizens can celebrate that both paths aim to purify the heart and heal suffering.

Building on this understanding involves concrete steps. Education is key: schools and media can highlight parallels (for example, drawing attention to how the Buddhist Eightfold Path’s virtues align with the Prophet’s Sunnah of mercy and the Quran’s emphasis on justice). Interfaith forums and family visits help dispel myths and humanize the “other.” Joint social projects – such as disaster relief or neighborhood cleanups – allow Muslims and Buddhists to cooperate on shared goals, embodying the principle that goodness is the common goaltibet.netmdpi.com. Celebrating each other’s festivals, even modestly (e.g. sharing meals during Vesak or Eid), weaves empathy into daily life. These grassroots efforts echo the ideal Malaysian formula: Understanding → Acceptance → Respect → Tolerancemdpi.com. By progressively moving through these stages, communities can keep the “trust, friendship and spirit of neighborliness” alivemdpi.com, preventing conflicts from overshadowing longstanding harmony.

Leaders and scholars agree on the power of dialogue. The Dalai Lama’s recent conversation with Malaysian Muslims stressed that mercy and compassion are “among [humanity’s] essential attributes”tibet.net. This perspective invites Buddhists to appreciate Islam’s emphasis on rahmah, and Muslims to see the universal value of bodhicitta (the wish for all to be enlightened). Monastics and imams in Malaysia have often participated in interfaith councils, jointly issuing statements against violence and advocating for social justice. Such visible solidarity reassures communities that spiritual authorities stand together for the common good.

Looking forward, a hopeful vision emerges: Malaysian Buddhists and Muslims learning from each other’s wisdom. Muslims might be inspired by the Buddhist practice of mindfulness to deepen their own meditation traditions (e.g. the Islamic practice of muraqabah, inner remembrance). Buddhists might draw on Islam’s rich concepts of caring for orphans and neighbors to enrich their own charitable work. Youth exchanges and pilgrimages to one another’s holy sites (respectfully) could foster personal bonds across faiths.

Ultimately, mutual respect thrives when people see the other as fellow seekers of peace. Buddhism teaches that all life is interconnected through compassion; Islam teaches that all people are part of a single ummah (community of humanity). By focusing on these shared ideals, Malaysian society can continue to be a beacon where diversity is not just tolerated but embraced as enriching. In the words of a Malaysian interfaith scholar, the aim is to “introduce the basics of all religions…with the objective that all will understand, but not necessarily embrace, each other’s religion”mdpi.com. This approach – celebrating diversity while seeking common humanity – lights the way toward a future in which Buddhists and Muslims (and all faiths) uphold each other’s dignity.

In this spirit, Malaysia’s experience can also guide the wider world. Wherever Buddhists and Muslims live side by side – whether in Southeast Asia, the Middle East, or beyond – the practice of compassionate dialogue and shared community action can foster global harmony. By learning from Malaysia’s example and continually remembering that we all share the virtues of mercy, kindness, and generosity, humanity moves closer to the universal peace both Buddha and Muhammad envisioned.