Epigraph

[Prophet], say, ‘God leaves whoever He will to stray, and guides to Himself those who turn towards Him, those who have faith and whose hearts find peace in the remembrance of God –– truly it is in the remembrance of God that hearts find peace –– those who believe and do righteous deeds: joy awaits these, and their final homecoming will be excellent.’ (Al Quran 13:27-29)

Written and collected by Zia H Shah MD, Chief Editor of the Muslim Times

Historical Background

Origins of Meditation: Practices of meditation trace back thousands of years across cultures. The earliest written evidence comes from the Hindu Vedas (~1500 BCE) and Upanishads, which describe deep contemplation as a means to spiritual knowledge​. In Buddhism, Gautama Buddha (5th century BCE) taught meditation (Pali: bhāvanā, jhāna) as the core of the path to enlightenment (Nirvana). Meditative techniques spread through Asia, evolving into diverse schools – e.g. Zen in China/Japan (attributed to Bodhidharma) and Vipassanā in Theravada Buddhism. Hindu traditions systematized meditation in texts like Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras (c. 400 CE), aiming for samādhi (union with the Absolute). In the Christian world, early Desert Fathers (3rd–4th century CE) practiced contemplative prayer, and later Eastern Orthodox mystics developed hesychasm – the silent repetition of the Jesus Prayer – to attain inner stillness and experience God’s presence, a practice notably parallel to dhikr​. Thus, by the medieval era, meditation was a common thread in monastic and mystical streams of many religions.

Evolution of Zikr in Islam: In Islam, dhikr (Zikr-e-Ilahi), meaning “remembrance of God,” originates in the Qur’an and teachings of Prophet Muhammad. The Qur’an repeatedly urges believers to “remember God often” (Qur’an 33:41) and promises “in the remembrance of God do hearts find rest” (13:28)​. Early Muslims practiced dhikr in daily life through prayers and praising God’s names​. By the 8th–9th centuries, ascetic Muslims (later called Sufis) adopted dhikr as a specialized devotional exercise. Classical Sufis like Hasan al-Basri and Rabia al-Adawiyya emphasized constant remembrance motivated by love of God. Over time, dhikr developed into systematic spiritual practice: for example, 9th-century mystic Sahl al-Tustari taught a continual mental repetition “Allah is with me, Allah watches me, Allah sees me” to cultivate unbroken awareness of God’s presence in the heart​. By the 12th century, formal Sufi orders (ṭuruq) emerged, each with collective dhikr circles and distinct methods (loud chant, silent heart-remembrance, rhythmic movements, etc.)​. Dhikr transitioned from a mostly individual practice into both solitary and communal rituals (often held on Thursday nights) aimed at invoking God’s presence and spiritual ecstasy (wajd)​. Sufi orders such as the Qadiriyya (founded by Abdul Qadir Jilani, d. 1166) and Chishtiyya incorporated vocal and musical dhikr (e.g. sama‘ music), while the Naqshbandiyya emphasized silent, internal dhikr (dhikr-e-qalbi) in the heart.

Notable Figures and Schools: Across traditions, key figures advanced meditative practice. In Buddhism, Gautama Buddha and later teachers like Padmasambhava (Tibetan Buddhism) shaped meditation techniques; in Hinduism, sages like Patanjali and Shankara refined yogic meditation; in Christianity, mystics like St. John of the Cross and Teresa of Ávila taught contemplative prayer. In Islam, prominent Sufis extolled dhikr: Al-Ghazali (1058–1111) wrote a treatise on the “Remembrance of God” describing how constant dhikr purifies the soul​; Ibn Arabi (1165–1240) developed a metaphysical framework (wahdat al-wujūd) where remembrance reveals the One Reality; Jalaluddin Rumi (1207–1273) poetically urged mystical remembrance and divine love through practices like music and whirling (Mevlevi order); and Shah Waliullah Dehlawi (1703–1762) in India, a Naqshbandi-influenced scholar, integrated Sufi dhikr into a broader Islamic revival, writing on subtle spiritual centers (latāʾif) and affirming that abundant dhikr is crucial for tazkiyah (soul-purification)​. Each tradition’s luminaries, from monks to Sufis, thus contributed to a rich history of meditative practice aimed at transcendence or closeness to the Divine.

Philosophical and Theological Dimensions

Meditation in Eastern Traditions: In Hindu and Buddhist philosophy, meditation is a vehicle to transcend ordinary consciousness and realize ultimate truth. The Upanishads taught inward contemplation to discover the Ātman (true Self) and its unity with Brahman (Universal Reality), leading to moksha (liberation). Classical Yoga philosophy describes meditation as progressively deep concentration (dhyāna) culminating in samādhi, where the practitioner’s individual self-awareness is absorbed into cosmic consciousness. Detachment is key: by stilling the mind and detaching from desires and ego, the meditator gains self-mastery and insight. In Buddhism, meditation has a central role in achieving enlightenment (bodhi). The Buddha’s teachings present meditation (e.g. mindfulness of breath, insight meditation) as a means to uproot ignorance and craving – the causes of suffering (dukkha)​. The goal is to attain Nirvana, often described as the “extinguishing” of the false sense of a permanent self and the end of attachment and suffering. Thus, Buddhist meditation emphasizes cultivating profound self-awareness and equanimity. Enlightenment in this context is marked by insight into anattā (non-self) and śūnyatā (emptiness of inherent existence), yielding compassion and freedom. Notably, these Eastern practices do not necessarily invoke a deity; even Hindu yoga’s “union” is often with an impersonal Absolute, and Buddhist meditation explicitly avoids theistic aims​. Instead, the metaphysical ideal is a state of pure consciousness or emptiness – a realization of reality beyond ego. This entails detachment not only from material desires but even from the sense of “I”: as one Buddhist text notes, mindfulness meditation quiets self-centered thinking, allowing one to see experiences as transient phenomena rather than identify with them​. In sum, meditation’s purpose in these traditions is enlightenment: a transformative realization of truth characterized by inner peace, insight, and liberation from the confines of the individual ego.

Zikr in Islamic Spirituality: In Islam, particularly Sufi theology, Zikr-e-Ilahi (remembrance of God) is seen as a path to attain nearness to God (qurb) and purity of heart. The Qur’anic worldview is centered on Tawḥīd (Divine Unity), and dhikr is the continual affirmation of that oneness. A quintessential dhikr formula is the creed “Lā ilāha illa Allāh” (“There is no god but God”), which Sufis repeat to efface all attachments except the One. This tawhidic remembrance aligns the soul with the reality that only God truly exists and is worthy of devotion. Sufi writers note that by persistently meditating on la ilaha illa Allah, the seeker negates worldly illusions and affirms God’s presence in the heart​. The practice of dhikr ranges from tongue to heart: one begins with verbal repetition and progresses to silent, internal remembrance (dhikr-e-qalb). Advanced Sufis stress that the best dhikr is in the heart, in line with a prophetic saying “the best remembrance is secret (silent) remembrance.”​ In this inner form, the seeker focuses every beat of the heart on God’s name, fostering constant awareness (murāqabah). The ultimate aim is the state of Iḥsān, defined by Prophet Muhammad as “to worship God as if you see Him, and if you do not see Him, truly He sees you.” Through dhikr, Sufis seek to actualize ihsan – a living sense of the Divine Presence at all times. Practically, this means stripping away heedlessness (ghaflah) and ego, and “remembering God incessantly” until the Divine is never absent from one’s consciousness​.

In Sufi metaphysics, dhikr is both a method and a transformative state. Al-Ghazali describes remembrance as a ladder with degrees: starting with tongue (mindfully reciting God’s names), then remembrance with effortful focus of the soul, then a stage where remembrance becomes the soul’s natural state, and finally a degree where only the Remembered (God) occupies the heart and the self is effaced​. In his words, “when one becomes immersed [in dhikr], one forgets oneself and all else, leaving only God Most High… This state…is called ‘annihilation of the self.’”​ Sufis refer to this as fanā’ – the annihilation in God. During intense dhikr, the individual ego-consciousness may dissolve in the ocean of Divine presence. A famous Sufi aphorism by Rumi illustrates this: “Remember God so much that you are forgotten. Let the caller and the called disappear; be lost in the Call.”​

This expresses the goal of dhikr: to transcend the limited self and exist only in relation to God. However, unlike Buddhism’s no-self doctrine, Sufism does not treat the self as an illusion to be negated permanently. After fanā (extinction), Sufis speak of baqā’ – continuing to live in/through God – wherein the person’s traits are reformed by God’s attributes. Theologically, an important aspect of dhikr is that it’s a reciprocal process: as God says in Hadith Qudsi, “Remember Me and I will remember you.” Sufi mystics like Ibn Arabi elaborate that in the deepest remembrance, it is actually God remembering Himself through the person’s heart​. The heart (qalb) becomes a polished mirror reflecting the Divine. Concepts like Dhikr-e-Qalbī (heart-silent remembrance) and Ḥuḍūr (awareness of God’s presence) are intertwined – the seeker reaches a point where every breath is in God’s remembrance, fulfilling the Quranic ideal of “continuous remembrance.”​

This process also ties into tazkiyah (purification of the soul): by constant dhikr, the nafs (lower self) is disciplined and purified, much as meditation purges mental defilements in Eastern traditions. Yet, the metaphysical understanding differs: the Sufi seeker is not aiming to realize an impersonal absolute or an inner self, but to deepen a relationship with a personal God. The Sufi sees himself as a lover and God as the Beloved (Ishq-e-Haqīqī, love of the True Reality). Through loving remembrance, the self’s identity transforms – not into impersonal emptiness – but into a state of abiding in God’s love and unity of will. Ultimately, both meditation and dhikr can lead to a unitive mystical experience, but interpretations of that unity diverge: Eastern philosophies often describe it as realizing the unity of ātman and brahman or the non-existence of a separate self, whereas Sufism describes it as the soul’s witnessing of Tawhid (God’s oneness) so completely that nothing of the ego remains between the lover and the Divine beloved​.

Comparative Metaphysics – Self, Consciousness, and the Divine: A key philosophical difference lies in how the self and Ultimate Reality are conceived. Buddhist meditation explicitly aims to deconstruct the notion of a personal self – the enlightened practitioner sees personal identity as a transient aggregation, ultimately empty. As one scholar notes, “Buddhism’s non-self doctrine holds that personal selfhood is an illusion,” and enlightenment entails fully realizing this​. In contrast, Sufism (especially in the school of Ibn Arabi, often termed Akbarian Sufism) does not consider the existence of the self as illusory in the same way​. Rather, the individual self is seen as a locus of Divine manifestation – a “dynamic instantiation of the Absolute,” as a phenomenological study of Sufi dhikr puts it​. The self’s true fulfillment is found not in negating its existence per se, but in reorienting it toward God, effectively remembering its origin in the Divine. When a Sufi achieves fanā’, it is said that the ego’s qualities are extinguished, but the person remains as an aware instrument of God (achieving baqā’, enduring with God’s attributes). Thus, where a Buddhist might describe the peak experience as emptiness or non-dual awareness without object or subject, a Sufi would describe it as fullness of God’s presence, a profound unity between servant and Lord (without claiming literal equality with God, which Islamic theology forbids). Both meditation and dhikr can yield mystical unity – a dissolution of the subject-object divide – but a Buddhist might interpret that as merging into an impersonal Nirvana, whereas a Sufi interprets it as ittihad (mystical union) in love, still framed as a meeting of lover and Beloved beyond separate existence. Additionally, in dhikr the theological context is paramount: Tawhid means the believer never actually “becomes” God; instead, the ego is annihilated to allow God’s light to dominate the heart. Sufi poetry often walks a fine line here, using bold metaphors (“I am Truth,” exclaimed Al-Hallaj in ecstasy) to express how completely God can inhabit the purified heart. Yet the Sufi masters remind that the servant remains a servant – it is God’s reality that takes over, not the person’s own reality. Meanwhile, meditation paths like Advaita Vedanta in Hinduism posit that the individual soul is the Absolute (Brahman) once ignorance is removed – a form of identity with the divine that mainstream Islamic thought would not accept. Despite these differences, there is an intriguing resonance: both a Buddhist enlightened monk and a Sufi ‘arif (gnostic) might describe the conventional self as transient or absent during the peak experience. The difference is what fills that void – for the Buddhist, an indescribable nirvanic peace, for the Sufi, the experiential knowledge of Al-Haqq (the Ultimate Truth, one of God’s Names). Lastly, love versus insight is emphasized differently: Sufism elevates love of God as the supreme motivator and outcome of remembrance (Rumi’s and Ibn Arabi’s writings are replete with the language of divine love and beauty), whereas Eastern meditative traditions, while not devoid of love (e.g. the compassion (karuṇā) practices in Buddhism or Bhakti yoga in Hinduism), give primacy to insight and realization of truth. In summary, meditation and dhikr both seek to connect the human soul to a higher reality and break the confines of ego, but they operate within distinct ontologies – one often non-theistic or monistic, the other monotheistic and relational. As a scholar of comparative mysticism notes, “both aim at unitive mystical experience” and self-transcendence, yet the meaning of selfhood in Buddhism versus Sufism differs fundamentally​. Meditation’s enlightenment may reveal that there was never a separate self to begin with, while Sufi dhikr leads the seeker to realize their deepest self in relation to God, not apart from Him.

Psychological and Neuroscientific Perspectives

Modern psychology and neuroscience have extensively studied meditation’s effects on the brain and mental health – and increasingly, they are also examining Islamic practices like dhikr. Meditation (especially mindfulness-based meditation) has been shown to produce a range of positive mental health outcomes. Studies report that regular meditation can reduce stress, anxiety, and depression while improving emotional regulation and overall well-being. For instance, mindfulness programs (e.g. Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction) have led to significantly less anxiety and somatic distress in participants, as documented in clinical trials​. Brain imaging research (fMRI and EEG) indicates that meditation changes both brain function and structure. Experienced meditators show increased activity in brain regions associated with attention, self-awareness, and emotion regulation during meditation​. Over time, mindfulness practice can strengthen neural connections related to focus and empathy and quiet down the brain’s “default mode network” (responsible for mind-wandering and self-referential thoughts), resulting in less ruminative thinking​. There is evidence of neuroplasticity with meditation – e.g. increases in gray matter density in areas linked to memory and learning have been observed after an 8-week mindfulness program. On the physiological side, meditation tends to induce a relaxation response: slower breathing, reduced blood pressure, and a shift toward parasympathetic (calming) nervous system activity. These changes correlate with subjective reports of calm and improved mood. In sum, from a neuroscientific viewpoint, meditation is a form of mental training that can “train the brain to switch out of ‘anxiety’ mode”, as one research article on neuroplasticity and meditation phrased it, by increasing alpha brain waves and modulating stress circuits​.

Dhikr and Islamic Prayer in Research: Although study of dhikr by scientists is relatively newer, emerging findings suggest that remembrance of God has analogous benefits for mental health and brain function. A recent EEG study on participants performing dhikrullah (repeating God’s name) found that it increases alpha waves in the brain​. Alpha wave dominance is associated with a wakefully relaxed, peaceful state. The study concluded that the vibrational sound of repeated dhikr (often done aloud in a rhythmic manner) entrains the brain into calmer frequencies and even triggers the release of endorphins, the “feel-good” neurochemicals​. This supports what practitioners have long reported: that sincere dhikr brings about sakīnah (tranquility) and contentment of the heart. Another neuroscientific case series using QEEG and fMRI examined Islamic ritual prayer (salat) and dhikr and noted activation of brain regions involved in focus and emotion similar to meditation, along with unique patterns related to spiritual feelings​. One functional MRI study (Saraei et al., 2022) explicitly compared neural activity during Islamic dhikr, Buddhist-style meditation, and simply thinking about God. It found both similarities and differences: dhikr and meditation each produced “transcendent experiences and emotional regulation” outcomes, though via slightly different neural pathways​. All three conditions (dhikr, meditation, and theological contemplation) engaged areas of the brain tied to attention and emotion, but dhikr uniquely heightened a sense of loving connectivity (possibly reflecting its devotional aspect) while meditation more strongly engaged self-awareness circuits. From a psychological standpoint, dhikr can be seen as a form of focused meditation with theistic content, and it appears to confer many of the same benefits documented for non-religious meditation. For example, a controlled experiment in Iran compared “Zekr therapy” (a guided Islamic remembrance routine) with secular mindfulness training for mothers of special-needs children. The results showed both interventions significantly reduced anxiety and improved life satisfaction, with dhikr-based therapy performing just as effectively as mindfulness​. Such findings are encouraging integration – therapists have started to develop “Islamic mindfulness” programs that incorporate dhikr, breathing, and prayer to help Muslim clients manage stress and trauma in a spiritually congruent way.

Emotional and Cognitive Benefits: Both meditation and dhikr enhance emotional regulation – the ability to manage one’s emotional states. Mindfulness meditation cultivates a non-reactive awareness of thoughts and feelings, which reduces the grip of negative emotions and increases resilience​. Similarly, dhikr’s repetitive focus on God instills a sense of trust and surrender, which can alleviate anxiety. In Islamic psychology, remembering God in difficult moments is taught as a way to reframe and release worries (relying on tawakkul, trust in God). Neurologically, one study noted that mindfulness practice “attenuates anxiety through mechanisms involved in regulation of self-referential thought”​ – essentially dampening overthinking about oneself. Dhikr may achieve a comparable effect by shifting one’s reference point from self to God. Interestingly, both practices are found to engage the parasympathetic nervous system. Slow, rhythmic breathing often accompanies meditation; likewise many forms of dhikr (and Quranic recitation) involve controlled breath and a soothing rhythm, inducing calm. A study of heartbeat and respiration during Sufi dhikr (loud chanting) noted physiological synchronization and relaxation responses akin to those in chanting meditations from other faiths. Cognitive benefits have also been observed: improved concentration, memory and even creativity are reported by regular meditators. Sufi practitioners of muraqabah (meditative reflection) likewise report heightened mental clarity and focus in daily life. Modern neuroscience hasn’t fully parsed dhikr’s cognitive impact, but anecdotal and preliminary evidence suggest it can increase mindfulness and reduce symptoms of depression. In one qualitative study, Muslim women described their daily prayers and dhikr as practices that “promote wellbeing” and “encourage intentional awareness,” functioning much like mindfulness to keep them grounded and emotionally balanced.

Spiritual Experiences and the Brain: Researchers like Andrew Newberg (neurotheology) have scanned the brains of people in prayer and meditation and found that intense spiritual practices can quiet the parietal lobes (which orient our sense of self in space) and heighten activity in frontal regions (attention, concentration). This correlates with the subjective feeling of “losing the sense of self” and feeling connected to a larger presence – which practitioners interpret according to their tradition (a Buddhist might say they experienced unity with the universe, a Sufi will say they felt engulfed in Divine love). These studies support that the mystical state sought through deep meditation or dhikr has a real neurological signature: often a combination of calm (alpha/theta waves) and hyper-focus or bliss (sometimes gamma wave bursts in experienced meditators during moments of insight). In plain terms, both meditation and dhikr seem to “tune” the brain toward states of peace, upliftment, and less ego-driven reactivity. They strengthen neural pathways that underlie compassion and calm, and weaken those tied to fear and anger. Thus, science is confirming many of the psychological insights of the meditative traditions: Dhikr indeed can make the heart (and mind) tranquil – literally, as the Quran indicated, and meditation indeed can reshape the mind toward greater happiness and present-moment awareness.

Sufi Practices and Modern Mindfulness

Sufi Meditative Techniques (Muraqaba, Silent Dhikr, Samā‘): Sufism developed its own repertoire of contemplative practices that in many ways parallel what we today call “mindfulness” or meditation. One key practice is muraqaba, often translated as “meditation” or “watchful contemplation.” In muraqaba, the Sufi adept sits quietly, closes the eyes, and focuses inward – typically concentrating on the heart, imagining the Divine Name Allah inscribed on it, or observing the breath while inwardly invoking God. This bears resemblance to Eastern meditation (focusing attention on a single point or mantra). Muraqaba is essentially “dhikr of the heart” – a silent meditation in which one turns one’s entire consciousness toward Allah​. Sufi literature instructs the seeker to observe thoughts passively and constantly return to the Divine focus, much like mindfulness practitioners learn to return to the breath. Another practice is silent dhikr (dhikr khafī), particularly emphasized by the Naqshbandi order. Here, one repeatedly and quietly remembers God (through phrases like Allah, Allah or la ilaha illallah) without moving the tongue, so that the remembrance is purely an internal mantra. This is very similar to techniques in Hindu/Buddhist traditions where a mantra is repeated mentally. In fact, scholars have noted that “the Sufi dhikr includes aspects resembling the repetition of the name of God in Eastern Christian hesychasm, as well as features similar to the meditation techniques of Yoga.”​

Such cross-parallels show that at the level of practice, the act of training one’s attention via repetition and stillness is universal.

Beyond silent meditation, Sufism also has auditory and movement practices: Samā‘ refers to spiritually listening to music or poetry in order to induce a state of wajd (ecstatic trance). The Mevlevi Sufis, inspired by Rumi, spin in the whirling dervish dance as a moving meditation combined with music and dhikr chants – this can be likened to a form of mindfulness-in-motion or even a flow state akin to meditative dance or yoga. While modern mindfulness is typically thought of as seated and still, contemporary mindfulness-based therapies do include walking meditations or yoga movement, so there is a parallel in using movement and sound to facilitate mindful presence. Breath control is another component: Sufis sometimes practice prānāyama-like breath techniques during dhikr, e.g. repeating Allah in sync with inhale/exhale. One Sufi method, attributed to the Naqshbandis, is to inhale thinking “lā ilāha” (there is no god) and exhale “illallāh” (except God), effectively using breath to internalize tawhid. This mirrors the way many Buddhist meditations coordinate breath with phrases or use breath as an object of concentration. In essence, classical Sufi practices are a form of meditation, though couched in Islamic terms.

Modern Mindfulness Techniques: In recent decades, secular mindfulness practices (deriving largely from Buddhism’s Satipatthāna and Vipassanā) have gained global popularity for stress reduction and mental wellness. Techniques like mindful breathing, body scan, and open-awareness meditation are structured, often timer-based exercises where individuals practice non-judgmental awareness of the present moment. These are typically taught devoid of religious content, focusing on the psychological process (attention to breath, sensations, thoughts). The question arises: how do these modern techniques compare with Sufi dhikr and contemplation? There are clear similarities. Both involve training attention away from distractions to a chosen point of focus (God’s name or presence in dhikr; one’s breath or sensations in mindfulness). Both encourage “being present” – a Sufi must be fully present with God in the now (what is sometimes called hudhur), while a meditator cultivates presence with whatever is here and now. Both also cultivate qualities like patience, inner silence, and self-awareness. In fact, contemporary scholars have started describing dhikr as an Islamic form of mindfulness. As one recent paper noted, Sufi meditative remembrance can be seen as “dhikr as mindfulness”, sharing much with Buddhist mindfulness practices except for its theistic orientation.

However, there are also notable differences in form and aim. Content of Focus: Mindfulness meditation, as popularized, often uses neutral objects (breath, bodily sensations, thoughts themselves) and emphasizes observing without attachment. It is fundamentally content-neutral and introspective – watching one’s own mental phenomena. Sufi dhikr, on the other hand, is content-rich with theistic imagery; the focus is explicitly on God (through His Names and attributes). Instead of cultivating a detached observation of experience, dhikr cultivates an attached devotion – an emotional and spiritual connection – to the Divine. For example, a mindfulness practitioner noticing a pain in the leg will note it and let it go; a Sufi in dhikr, if noticing the pain, might inwardly pray or recall it is from God and return attention to the Divine Name. Thus, the mindful attitude in Buddhism is often described as one of equanimity and neutral witnessing, whereas in Sufism the attitude is one of love, awe, and yearning. Despite this, both approaches can yield a state of profound concentration known as murāqabah in Islam or samādhi in yoga – a deeply absorbed, peaceful state.

Structured vs. Repetitive Practices: Modern mindfulness exercises are sometimes very structured (e.g. a 10-minute guided body scan, noting each part of the body). Sufi practices can be structured in terms of ritual (certain litanies after prayers, a fixed number of repetitions, etc.), but when it comes to meditation sessions, Sufis often practice until they reach a certain spiritual state rather than for a set duration. Mindfulness generally avoids any chanting or invocation (except in specific traditions or when borrowing yoga mantras). In contrast, repetitive recitation of Divine Names (Asma al-Husna) is central to Sufi meditation. Repeating a Name like “Ya Rahman” (O Merciful) not only concentrates the mind but is believed to invoke that divine attribute into the seeker’s heart. This is somewhat analogous to mantra meditation in Hindu tradition (repeating a sacred syllable). The difference is that in Islam, these Names are understood to be alive and relational – calling upon God who listens – rather than just mental focal points. That said, many therapeutic mindfulness programs now incorporate loving-kindness meditations where phrases like “May I be happy, may others be happy” are repeated – showing that repetition isn’t alien to mindfulness practice either.

Muslim Perspectives on Mindfulness: In the contemporary Muslim world, there has been a healthy interest in integrating beneficial aspects of mindfulness with Islamic spirituality. Some Muslim psychologists and scholars point out that Islam already has concepts of mindfulness: for example, the concept of khushū‘ in prayer – a state of full concentration and humility – is essentially mindfulness of God during worship​. Authors at organizations like Yaqeen Institute have written about “Islamic Meditation,” arguing that techniques of silence and focus can be adopted in a halal way to enhance one’s dhikr and salah​. They note that early Muslim sages practiced various forms of contemplation (tafakkur, murāqabah) and achieved spiritual excellence, and that we can **“incorporate modern insights into mindfulness… as long as we remain grounded in Islamic tradition.”*​

This reflects a broad acceptance that mindfulness, stripped of any anti-Islamic doctrine, is akin to the wisdom (ḥikmah) that “is the lost property of the believer” – Muslims can benefit from it without fear, since focus and calm are universal tools​.

In practical terms, some Muslims use breathing awareness to improve their khushū‘ in daily prayers. Others might attend mindfulness meditation sessions but mentally reframe the “awareness” as being aware of God’s blessings or watching one’s soul before God (an idea called murāqabah ilahiyyah – being vigilant of God). There are also emerging programs of “Islamic mindfulness-based therapy” where clients are taught to do dhikr (like repeating HasbunAllahu wa ni‘mal Wakil – “God is sufficient for us and the best Guardian”) in a mindful manner when stressed, combining spiritual coping with attention training. Thus, rather than view meditation and dhikr as opposites, modern practitioners find them complementary. Still, some conservative opinions in the Muslim community caution against adopting meditation methods from other religions without discernment, to avoid inadvertently bringing in spiritual concepts contrary to Islamic faith. The general resolution to this is that techniques involving breathing, concentration, and observation are value-neutral and can be Islamized with proper intention, whereas explicitly Hindu or Buddhist mantras or visualizations should be replaced with Islamic analogues (like saying subḥānAllāh or imagining standing before Ka’ba or the Divine light, instead of non-Islamic formulas). By and large, contemporary Sufi orders have long been teaching mindfulness under Islamic garb – the Naqshbandi slogan “nāẓar bar qadam” (watch your steps) is a metaphor for being mindful of each step and breath in God’s presence. Such teachings show that mindful awareness is deeply embedded in Islam’s own mystical tradition, even if the terminology differs.

Comparative Summary: In sum, Sufi meditative practices and modern mindfulness share a common core of cultivating present moment awareness and focus, but they diverge in orientation – one is God-centered and relational, the other often self-centered (in the sense of focusing on one’s own experience) or completely non-theistic. The repetitive dhikr of God’s Name can be seen as a thermometer and catalyst of spiritual state – the more one repeats with sincerity, the more one’s state shifts towards peace and devotion. Mindfulness lacks a specific phrase to repeat; instead, the repetition is in returning attention to the breath or body each time it wanders. Interestingly, both require consistency and discipline. Many Sufis perform a daily wazifa (litany) of dhikr just as mindfulness practitioners maintain a daily sitting practice. Both can be done in group settings: Sufi hadra (group dhikr ceremonies with chanting) create a powerful shared energy similar to group meditation sessions or retreats which practitioners often report as energizing or more impactful than doing it alone.

Spiritual and Existential Outcomes

Finally, we consider the spiritual and existential fruits of meditation versus zikr – the states of consciousness, virtues, and transformations each engenders, and how they compare.

States of Consciousness and Tranquility: Both practices are renowned for bringing about profound states of inner peace and altered consciousness. In meditation, especially in its advanced forms, practitioners may experience jhanas (in Buddhism) or savikalpa/nirvikalpa samadhi (in yoga) – states of deep absorption where awareness of the outside world fades, the mind becomes intensely unified, and bliss or equanimity pervades. These states are described as luminous and serene, sometimes with imagery of a flame that doesn’t flicker in a windless place (Bhagavad Gita metaphor) or an ocean of still water. Similarly, in intense dhikr, Sufis experience ḥāl (spiritual mood) and wajd (ecstasy). They might tremble, weep, or feel giddy with joy as the heart fills with what they perceive as Divine light. A consummate outcome is sakīna (tranquil calm descended from God) – many accounts of Sufi gatherings describe a deep peace settling over the participants after the climax of dhikr, leaving them silent, smiling, and enraptured. Neurologically, these may correspond to similar brainwave patterns, but in the language of the seeker, a Buddhist might say, “I touched Nirvana, an inexpressible peace,” while a Sufi would say, “I felt annihilated in the Divine presence.” The awareness achieved also has different flavors: meditation often leads to a meta-awareness – you become aware that you are aware, a kind of clear witnessing of all phenomena (including one’s own thoughts) without reaction. Dhikr leads to an awareness of God – a sense that “only God is real, I am nothing” or that one is “standing before God” in every moment. Both are transformative of one’s perception of reality. Time may feel slowed or non-existent in these moments; worries and worldly concerns drop away. Many meditators speak of an insight of interconnection – feeling “at one” with all beings or the cosmos. Correspondingly, Sufis speak of tawḥīd in consciousness – seeing God’s unity such that all multiplicity of creation becomes like a shadow, with only the One casting it being truly real​. In practical terms, both practices, when successful, lead to tranquility (itmīnan in Islamic terms). The Quran promises that “Truly in the remembrance of Allah do hearts find rest.” and indeed, Sufis use dhikr to combat anxiety, grief and restlessness of the heart, much as people use meditation for stress relief and emotional balance.

Divine Love (Ishq-e-Haqiqi) vs. Self-Realization: One existential dimension unique to Sufi dhikr is the emphasis on divine love. Sufis view love as both the path and the goal – “Ishq-e-Haqīqī” (love of the Ultimate Reality) is the force that draws the seeker to do dhikr incessantly, and the result of dhikr is an ever-increasing love for God. Mystics like Rumi put love at the center: “Whether you’ve loved or not, God loves you. But it’s the love in you that recognizes God’s love.” In dhikr, the act of remembering is an act of love – you don’t remember someone unless you care for them. Over time, the Sufi’s heart is supposed to be kindled into ardor, seeing God’s beauty everywhere and yearning for the Beloved in every moment. This produces qualities of compassion, forgiveness, and humility – because the closer one draws to God, the more one’s heart mirrors God’s rahma (mercy) and jamal (beauty). In contrast, classical meditation traditions, especially Buddhism, place more emphasis on self-realization or insight. Love and compassion are certainly cultivated (metta meditation, etc.), but they are often a by-product of realization: when one sees all beings are one or empty, compassion naturally arises. The practitioner’s primary orientation might be wisdom (knowing the truth of existence) rather than a devotional love toward a personal God. However, in some Hindu paths (the Bhakti traditions), there is a concept similar to Sufism – repeating God’s name (e.g. Rama, Krishna) out of love and longing. Thus, the love vs. knowledge focus is not strictly Islam vs. East, but Sufism definitely takes the love dimension to a very high degree. One could say meditation aims at self-transcendence (going beyond the small self to either realize a higher Self or no-self), whereas dhikr aims at God-transcendence (effacing the self in the love of God). The end result described by many advanced practitioners does converge: a Buddhist speaks of nirvana (blowing out the flame of selfish desire), a Vedantist of moksha (freedom of the soul realizing its divine nature), and a Sufi of fana fi’Allah (annihilation in God). All three imply a release from the ordinary ego and a merger into a greater Reality. But the experience is framed differently. For a Sufi, it is intensely relational – often described in metaphors of lover and beloved finally uniting after a long separation. For a Buddhist, it might be described as cessation – the flames of craving and delusion finally quenched, an experience of sublime peace rather than a meeting with a Beloved.

Another outcome of Sufi dhikr is the concept of the “Perfected Self” (al-insān al-kāmil). Through years of remembrance, the Sufi is said to attain a state of completeness in which human virtues are fully realized (wisdom, courage, temperance, justice – similar to what Greeks call cardinal virtues – plus the Islamic virtues like tawakkul (trust), shukr (gratitude), etc.). Such a person is considered God’s friend (walī). Meditation too speaks of the “enlightened being” who is free of ignorance and suffering, often characterized by compassion and equanimity. So both produce an ideal personality: the enlightened sage or the realized saint. One might compare, for example, the Dalai Lama (a product of lifelong meditation cultivating compassion) with a Sufi saint like Sheikh Abd al-Qadir Jilani – both exhibit deep compassion, humility, and wisdom. The difference is that the Sufi saint explicitly attributes all virtue to God’s grace achieved through remembrance, whereas the meditator might attribute it to purification of the mind and insight into reality.

Purpose and Transformative Power: Ultimately, meditation and zikr both serve to transform the practitioner at the deepest levels. The purpose of meditation, in spiritual terms, is often stated as ending suffering and attaining a liberated state of consciousness (enlightenment). The transformative power lies in its ability to radically change one’s relationship to thoughts and feelings – instead of being ruled by them, one becomes the observer and thus gains freedom. The purpose of dhikr, as Sufis state, is to “polish the heart” and “draw near to the Almighty”, attaining the state of Ihsan (perfection in worship). Its power transforms the individual’s very identity – from ego-driven to soul-centered, from forgetful of God to perpetually God-conscious. Both practices can alleviate existential anxieties. A meditator who experiences a state of oneness might lose the fear of death (seeing death as just a transition in a continuous consciousness or an empty phenomenon not touching the true nature). A Sufi who has felt divine intimacy loses fear because they trust Allah utterly and perceive death as return to the Beloved. On a day-to-day level, these practices imbue life with meaning: meditation practitioners often report a greater sense of presence and appreciation of simple moments (the sacrament of the present moment in some Christian terms), and Sufis report a sense of companionship with God – one never feels alone or purposeless if one is remembering God.

In practical daily integration, mindfulness might make someone more attentive, kind, and less reactive at work and home, while dhikr might make someone more patient, morally conscious, and kind, viewing others with the eye of compassion (rahma) because they see them as manifestations of the Creator’s signs. The transformative effect on character (what Sufis call tazkiyat an-nafs, purification of the ego) is a shared goal. Sufi manuals explicitly state that persistent dhikr cleanses arrogance, greed, and hatred from the heart, replacing them with humility, contentment, and love​. Mindfulness texts similarly talk about how mindfulness fosters acceptance, reduces impulsivity, and increases empathy. Even in therapeutic settings, both are used to treat similar issues: anxiety, trauma, addiction – indicating convergent effectiveness.

Final Insights: In a way, meditation and Zikr-e-Ilahi are two paths up the same mountain of spiritual realization, but seen from different cultural lenses. Meditation often takes a bottom-up approach: start with the mind, observe reality, peel away illusions, eventually realize the truth (which for some is God, for others is emptiness). Zikr takes a top-down approach: start with invoking the Highest Truth (God’s name), fill the mind with the remembrance of the Real, and by flooding the heart with divine light, push out illusion and base desires. Both paths meet when the individual self is radically transformed – either by discovery of its true nature or by proximity to the Divine.

Comparatively, meditation is sometimes described as a science of consciousness, while dhikr is described as an art of love and devotion. Yet, Sufis would argue dhikr also yields gnosis (ma‘rifa, deep knowing of God) – it’s not blind repetition but leads to profound realizations. Conversely, dedicated meditators often speak of a sense of reverence and connectedness that sounds spiritual even if not theistic – an insight into unity that brings about unconditional compassion (akin to love). The transformative power of each is well-attested: countless individuals have found inner peace, ethical improvement, and transcendent insight through these practices. As a 2023 comparative fMRI study noted, despite different frameworks, both meditation and dhikr reliably lead to “transcendent experiences” and improved emotional regulation​ – in other words, both help humans rise above ordinary consciousness and suffering.

To conclude, meditation and Zikr-e-Ilahi are like two languages describing a journey to the depth of the self and beyond. One speaks in terms of mindfulness, enlightenment, and non-self; the other in terms of remembrance, divine love, and annihilation of self in God. Each has a rich historical lineage and has evolved with its own symbols and teachers. The philosophical underpinnings differ – one seeks ultimate reality as an impersonal truth or inner realization, the other as a personal God and beloved – which leads to different metaphors of union. Psychologically, however, both engage similar processes of mental refinement and both show promising benefits in modern research for calming the mind and opening the heart. The Sufi poet Hafez once wrote, “This moment, this love, comes to rest in me – many beings in one being. In one wheat grain a thousand sheaf stacks. Inside the needle’s eye, a turning night of stars.” In a way, this mystical imagery could be embraced by a meditator or a Sufi alike: it speaks of present-moment realization (this moment, this love), unity of all beings (many beings in one being), and an expansive consciousness (a turning night of stars inside a needle’s eye). Whether one reaches that through breath awareness or chanting Allah, the end state is a radiant, transformed consciousness. Both meditation and zikr are thus powerful vehicles for inner transformation – each with its unique flavor, but both ultimately aiming to fulfill the deepest spiritual yearning of the human soul: to transcend the trivial, realize the Truth, and find lasting peace.

Sources:

• Al-Ghazali – Ihya ‘Ulum al-Din, “On the Remembrance of God” (cited in ​thecontemplativelife.org).
• Rumi – Love is a Stranger, p.65 (Shambhala, 2016)​ azquotes.com.
• Ibn Arabi – theory of dhikr in Akbarian Sufism (phenomenology study) ​phenomenologyblog.com​.
• Shah Waliullah – discussions on dhikr and latifa-centric contemplation ​core.ac.uk.
• Encyclopaedia Iranica – “Ḏikr” entry (Sufism and comparisons) ​iranicaonline.org​iranicaonline.org​iranicaonline.org.
• The Contemplative Life – overview of Sufi dhikr practice and fana ​thecontemplativelife.org​.
• Buddhist Meditation principles – Nyanaponika Thera’s writings on mindfulness ​buddhanet.net.
• Neuroscience studies: EEG study on dhikr (Iskandar et al. 2019)​ media.neliti.com; fMRI study on dhikr vs meditation (Saraei et al. 2022) ​tandfonline.com; comparative therapy study (Esmailim et al. 2023) ​journals.kmanpub.com; APA monitor on mindfulness benefits​medicine.yale.edu.
• Yaqeen Institute – “Mindful Muslim: Islamic Meditation” (on integrating mindfulness) ​yaqeeninstitute.org​.
• Note: Many concepts (ihsan, fana, etc.) are drawn from classical Sufi manuals like Qushayri’s Risala and Junaid’s teachings, and the comparisons with Eastern traditions are synthesized from various scholarly works on comparative mysticism ​phenomenologyblog.com​iranicaonline.org. The above references provide supporting details for the key points made.